1.1+Ages+of+chemistry

Indian Chemistry Through The Ages[[image:http://www.mindworkshop.com/alchemy/image4/gcspro004.gif width="154" height="217" align="right" caption="graphic"]] by D.P. Agrawal
It is now known that alchemy (the older form of chemistry) had made great strides in India. Ayurveda, which used a variety of minerals, also played an important role in the development of chemistry. It developed as iatrochemistry, which was closely related to medicine. The two main incentives for the development of chemistry were the age-old desires of human beings: to live forever and to get rich. Much of chemistry grew out of the early efforts to develop an elixir and to turn base metals into gold. It is also interesting to note that Needham claimed that earliest distillation of alcohol is attested to through the archaeological finds at Taxila. In fact, the ancient name of alcohol is //khola//, which sounds so similar to it! abstract ​EPMA analyses and K-Ar age determinations were carried out on phengite in pelitic schist from the Sanbagawa metamorphic belt of the Kanto Mountains, Central Japan. Phengite from the Sanbagawa pelitic schist in the Kanto Mountains generally occurs as aggregates of fine-grained crystals. It is extremely fine-grained in domains adjacent to relatively rigid garnet and albite porphyroblasts. This suggests that deformation-induced grain-size reduction took place in phengite during the ductile deformation accompanying the exhumation of the host schists. EPMA analysis shows that phengite is chemically heterogeneous at the thin-section scale, suggesting that it formed during retrograde metamorphism in restricted equilibrium domains. The retrograde chemical reaction was promoted by the ductile deformation. K-Ar ages of phengite get younger from the Southern Unit (82 Ma) to the Northern Unit (58 Ma) in the Kanto Mountains. The age range is similar to that in Central Shikoku. The older schists occur in the higher metamorphic grade zone in Central Shikoku and in the lower-grade zone in the Kanto Mountains. The thermal structures in Central Shikoku are inverted, so that the highest-grade zone occurs in the upper or middle parts of the apparent stratigraphic succession. In contrast, the Kanto Mountains have a normal thermal structure: the higher-grade zone is in the lower part of the apparent stratigraphic succession. The different tectonic features in exhumation produced the two contrasting age-temperature-structure relations at the western side of Sanbagawa belt in Central Shikoku and the eastern end of the Sanbagawa belt in the Kanto Mountains that are 800 km distant from each other. Namely, the western Sanbagawa belt in Central Shikoku underwent longer ductile deformation during the exhumation than the eastern Sanbagawa belt in the Kanto Mountains.take from www.sciencedirect.com

AGE OF CHEMISTRY

The word organic has become shorthand for Earth-friendly, health-conscious awareness of everything from cotton to coffee. Organic chemistry, however, is an entirely different beast. It focuses on reactions using what scientists call organic compounds, composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen. A far cry from the popular consumer denotation, the name stems from the erroneous 19th-century belief that organic compounds could only be synthesized in living organisms through the vis vitalis. Although it has nothing to do with this life force, organic chemistry most certainly now informs almost every aspect of our lives. Pharmaceuticals, food flavouring, microchips: there’s nary an industrial process or product that isn’t the end result of an organic chemical reaction. Unfortunately, the same processes that engender our computer-loving, fuel-guzzling, antibiotics-popping lifestyles are also poisoning the planet with persistent organic pollutants like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). But all that is about to change. “Chemistry is the only field whose primary mandate is to make new forms of matter,” says Bruce Lennox, Chair of McGill’s Department of Chemistry. “In order to invent new molecules, you need to have a chemical reaction that you can implement.” In organic chemistry, this means dissolving the solid, liquid or gaseous starting materials in a solvent. These solvents, however, are often highly toxic. That’s why McGill researchers are heading a revolution that hopes to change how we do chemistry. In the research lab and on the shop floor, these pioneers of zero-emission green chemistry aim to replace traditional chemistry processes with cleaner means to the same ends—thus reducing, and even preventing, pollution at the source.



= __ages of chemistry__ =

Chemistry is a branch of science that has been around for a long time. In fact, chemistry is known to date back to as far as the prehistoric times. Due to the amount of time chemistry takes up on the timeline, the science is split into four general chronological categories. The four categories are: prehistoric times - beginning of the Christian era (black magic), beginning of the Christian era - end of 17th century (alchemy), end of 17th century - mid 19th century (traditional chemistry) and mid 19th century - present (modern chemistry).

Beginning of the Christian Era (Black Magic) [] || 1700 BC || King [|Hammurabi]'s reign over Babylon || Known metals were recorded and listed in conjunction with heavenly bodies. || End of 17th Century ([|Alchemy]) [] || 300 BC -300 AD || The Advent of the Alchemists || Influenced greatly by Aristotle's ideas, alchemists attempted to transmute cheap metals to gold. The substance used for this conversion was called the [|//Philosopher's Stone//]. || End of 17th Century - Mid 19th Century (Traditional Chemistry)
 * **Time Intervals** || **Specific Times** || **Events** || **Description** ||
 * Prehistoric Times -
 * ^  || 430 BC || [|Democritus] of ancient Greece || Democritus proclaims the atom to be the simplest unit of matter. All matter was composed of atoms. ||
 * ^  || 300 BC || Aristotle of ancient Greece || [|Aristotle] declares the existence of only four elements: fire, air, water and earth. All matter is made up of these four elements and matter had four properties: hot, cold, dry and wet. ||
 * Beginning of the Christian Era -
 * ^  || 13th Century (1200's) - 15th Century (1400's) || Failure of the [|Gold] Business || Although [|Pope John XXII] issued an edict against gold-making, the gold business continued. Despite the alchemists' efforts, transmutation of cheap metals to gold never happened within this time period. ||
 * ^  || 1520 || [|Elixir of Life] || Alchemists not only wanted to convert metals to gold, but they also wanted to find a chemical concoction that would enable people to live longer and cure all ailments. This elixir of life never happened either. ||
 * ^  || End of 17th Century || Death of Alchemy || The disproving of Aristotle's four-elements theory and the publishing of the book, //The Skeptical Chemist// (by [|Robert Boyle]), combined to destroy this early form of chemistry. ||

[] || 1700's || Phlogiston Theory Coulomb's Law || Johann J. Beecher believed in a substance called [|phlogiston]. When a substance is burned, phlogiston was supposedly added from the air to the flame of the burning object. In some substances, a product is produced. For example, calx of mercury plus phlogiston gives the product of mercury. [|Charles Coulomb] discovered that given two particles separated by a certain distance, the force of attraction or repulsion is directly proportional to the product of the two charges and is inversely proportional to the distance between the two charges. || Present ([|Modern Chemistry] //or// 20th Century Chemistry)
 * ^  || 1774-1794 || Disproving of the Phlogiston Theory || [|Joseph Priestley] heated calx of mercury, collected the colorless gas and burned different substances in this colorless gas. Priestley called the gas "dephlogisticated air", but it was actually oxygen. It was [|Antoine Lavoisier] who disproved the Phlogiston Theory. He renamed the "dephlogisticated air" oxygen when he realized that the oxygen was the part of air that combines with substances as they burn. Because of Lavoisier's work, Lavoisier is now called the "Father of Modern Chemistry". ||
 * ^  || 1803 || Dalton's Atomic Theory || [|John Dalton] publishes his Atomic Theory which states that all matter is composed of atoms, which are small and indivisible. ||
 * Mid 19th Century -

[] || 1854 || Vacuum Tube || [|Heinrich Geissler] creates the first vacuum tube. || Radioactive Elements || [|J.J. Thomson] placed the Crookes' tube within a magnetic field. He found that the cathode rays were negatively charged and that each charge had a mass ratio of 1.759E8 coulombs per gram. He concluded that all atoms have this negative charge (through more experiments) and he renamed the cathode rays electrons. His model of the atom showed a sphere of positively charged material with negative electrons stuck in it. Thomson received the 1906 [|Nobel Prize] in physics. [|Marie Curie] discovered uranium and thorium within pitchblend. She then continued to discover two previously unknown elements: radium and polonium. These two new elements were also found in pitchblend. She received two nobel prizes for her discovery; one was in chemistry while the other was in physics. || Neutron Bombardment and Nuclear Fission || [|James Chadwick] discovers the neutron. [|Enrico Fermi] bombards elements with neutrons and produces elements of the next highest atomic number. [|Nuclear fission] occurred when Fermi bombarded uranium with neutrons. He received the 1938 Nobel Prize in physics. ||
 * ^  || 1879 || [|Cathode Rays] || [|William Crookes] made headway in modern atomic theory when he used the vacuum tube made by Heinrich Geissler to discover cathode rays. Crookes created a glass vacuum tube which had a zinc sulfide coating on the inside of one end, a metal cathode imbedded in the other end and a metal anode in the shape of a cross in the middle of the tube. When electricity was run through the apparatus, an image of the cross appeared and the [|zinc sulfide] glowed. Crookes hypothesized that there must have been rays coming from the cathode which caused the zinc sulfide to fluoresce and the cross to create a shadow and these rays were called cathode rays. ||
 * ^  || 1885 || [|The Proton] || Eugene Goldstein discovered positive particles by using a tube filled with hydrogen gas (this tube was similar to Thomson's tube...see 1897). The positive particle had a charge equal and opposite to the electron. It also had a mass of 1.66E-24 grams or one atomic mass unit. The positive particle was named the proton. ||
 * ^  || 1895 || X-rays || [|Wilhelm Roentgen] accidentally discovered x-rays while researching the glow produced by cathode rays. Roentgen performed his research on cathode rays within a dark room and during his research, he noticed that a bottle of barium platinocyanide was glowing on a shelf. He discovered that the rays that were causing the fluorescence could also pass through glass, cardboard and walls. The rays were called [|x-rays]. ||
 * ^  || 1896 || Pitchblend || [|Henri Becquerel] was studying the fluorescence of pitchblend when he discovered a property of the pitchblend compound. [|Pitchblend] gave a fluorescent light with or without the aid of sunlight. ||
 * ^  || 1897 || [|The Electron and Its Properties]
 * ^  || 1909 || Mass of the Electron || [|Robert Millikan] discovered the mass of an electron by introducing charged oil droplets into an electrically charged field. The charge of the electron was found to be 1.602E-19 coulombs. Using Thomson's mass ration, Millikan found the mass of one electron to be 9.11E-28 grams. Millikan received the 1932 Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery. ||
 * ^  || 1911 || Three Types of Radioactivity || [|Ernest Rutherford] sent a radioactive source through a magnetic field. Some of the radioactivity was deflected to the positive plate; some of it was deflected to the negative plate; and the rest went through the magnetic field without deflection. Thus, there were three types of radioactivity: [|alpha particles] (+), [|beta particles] (-) and [|gamma rays] (neutral). By performing other experiments and using this information, Rutherford created an atomic model different from Thomson's. Rutherford believed that the atom was mostly empty space. It contains an extremely tiny, dense positively charged nucleus (full of protons) and the nucleus is surrounded by electrons traveling at extremely high speeds. The Thomson model was thrown out after the introduction of the Rutherford model. ||
 * ^  || 1914 || Protons within a Nucleus || [|Henry Moseley] attempts to use x-rays to determine the number of protons in the nucleus of each atom. He was unsuccessful because the neutron had not been discovered yet. ||
 * ^  || 1932 || The Neutron
 * ^  || 1934 || Artificial Radioactive Elements || [|Irene Curie and Frederic Joliot-Curie] discovered that radioactive elements could be created artificially in the lab with the bombardment of alpha particles on certain elements. They were given the 1935 Nobel Prize. ||
 * ^  || 1940's || [|Manhattan Project] || [|Albert Einstein] and Enrico Fermi both warned the United States about Germany's extensive research on atomic fission reaction. Below the football field at the [|University of Chicago], the United States developed the very first working nuclear fission reactor. The Manhattan Project was in process. ||

= = Each link for each time interval contains some information about that period. Unfortunately, the information is sparse and the presentation of the info leaves much to be desired. However, more information on chemical history can be found in the links listed below. The list is collated in a chronological manner so like the table above, alchemy and black magic should be on top while traditional and modern chemistry should be closer to the end of the list. Also, there are some other links besides the ones that are in the time-interval section and these links should lead you to more information about the underlined topics.

taken from columbia.edu

www.google.com

take from [|www.google.com]

||~ Laureate ||~ Date of birth ||~ Date of award ||~ Age upon receiving award ||~ Days lived after receiving award ||~ Date of death ||~ Lifespan || award ||~ Age upon receiving award ||~ Days lived after receiving award ||~ Date of death ||~ Lifespan ||
 * 1 || van t Hoff, Jacobus [|Jacobus van 't Hoff] || 1852-08-30 30 August 1852 ( 1852-08-30 ) || 10 December 1901 ( 1901-12-10 ) || 49-102&0000000000000049.000000 49 years, &0000000000000102.000000 102 days || 03,368 3,368 days || 1911-03-11 1 March 1911 || 21,366 days ( &0000000000000058.000000 58 years, &0000000000000183.000000 183 days) ||
 * 2 || Fischer, Hermann [|Hermann E. Fischer] || 1852-10-09 9 October 1852 ( 1852-10-09 ) || 10 December 1902 ( 1902-12-10 ) || 50-062&0000000000000050.000000 50 years, &0000000000000062.000000 62 days || 06,061 6,061 days || 1919-07-15 15 July 1919 || 24,384 days ( &0000000000000066.000000 66 years, &0000000000000279.000000 279 days) ||
 * 3 || Arrhenius, Svante [|Svante Arrhenius] || 1859-02-19 19 February 1859 ( 1859-02-19 ) || 10 December 1903 ( 1903-12-10 ) || 44-294&0000000000000044.000000 44 years, &0000000000000294.000000 294 days || 08,697 8,697 days || 1927-10-02 2 October 1927 || 25,061 days ( &0000000000000068.000000 68 years, &0000000000000225.000000 225 days) ||
 * 4 || Ramsay, William [|William Ramsay] || 1852-10-02 2 October 1852 ( 1852-10-02 ) || 10 December 1904 ( 1904-12-10 ) || 52-069&0000000000000052.000000 52 years, &0000000000000069.000000 69 days || 04,243 4,243 days || 1916-07-23 23 July 1916 || 23,304 days ( &0000000000000063.000000 63 years, &0000000000000295.000000 295 days) ||
 * 5 || von Baeyer, Adolf [|Adolf von Baeyer] || 1835-10-31 31 October 1835 ( 1835-10-31 ) || 10 December 1905 ( 1905-12-10 ) || 70-040&0000000000000070.000000 70 years, &0000000000000040.000000 40 days || 04,271 4,271 days || 1917-08-20 20 August 1917 || 29,878 days ( &0000000000000081.000000 81 years, &0000000000000293.000000 293 days) ||
 * 6 || Moissan, Henri [|Henri Moissan] || 1852-09-28 28 September 1852 ( 1852-09-28 ) || 10 December 1906 ( 1906-12-10 ) || 54-073&0000000000000054.000000 54 years, &0000000000000073.000000 73 days || 00,072 72 days || 1907-02-20 20 February 1907 || 19,867 days ( &0000000000000054.000000 54 years, &0000000000000145.000000 145 days) ||
 * 7 || Buchner, Eduard [|Eduard Buchner] || 1860-05-20 20 May 1860 ( 1860-05-20 ) || 10 December 1907 ( 1907-12-10 ) || 47-204&0000000000000047.000000 47 years, &0000000000000204.000000 204 days || 03,534 3,534 days || 1917-08-13 13 August 1917 || 20,903 days ( &0000000000000057.000000 57 years, &0000000000000085.000000 85 days) ||
 * 8 || Rutherford, Ernest [|Ernest Rutherford] || 1871-08-30 30 August 1871 ( 1871-08-30 ) || 10 December 1908 ( 1908-12-10 ) || 37-102&0000000000000037.000000 37 years, &0000000000000102.000000 102 days || 10,540 10,540 days || 1937-10-19 19 October 1937 || 24,156 days ( &0000000000000066.000000 66 years, &0000000000000050.000000 50 days) ||
 * 9 || Ostwald, Wilhelm [|Wilhelm Ostwald] || 1853-09-02 2 September 1853 ( 1853-09-02 ) || 10 December 1909 ( 1909-12-10 ) || 56-099&0000000000000056.000000 56 years, &0000000000000099.000000 99 days || 08,151 8,151 days || 1932-04-04 4 April 1932 || 28,703 days ( &0000000000000078.000000 78 years, &0000000000000215.000000 215 days) ||
 * 10 || Wallach, Otto [|Otto Wallach] || 1847-03-27 27 March 1847 ( 1847-03-27 ) || 10 December 1910 ( 1910-12-10 ) || 63-258&0000000000000063.000000 63 years, &0000000000000258.000000 258 days || 07,383 7,383 days || 1931-02-26 26 February 1931 || 30,651 days ( &0000000000000083.000000 83 years, &0000000000000336.000000 336 days) ||
 * 11 || Curie, Marie [|Marie Curie] || 1867-11-07 7 November 1867 ( 1867-11-07 ) || 10 December 1911 ( 1911-12-10 ) || 44-033&0000000000000044.000000 44 years, &0000000000000033.000000 33 days || 08,242 8,242 days || 1934-07-04 4 July 1934 || 24,345 days ( &0000000000000066.000000 66 years, &0000000000000239.000000 239 days) ||
 * 12 || Grignard, Victor [|Victor Grignard] || 1871-05-06 6 May 1871 ( 1871-05-06 ) || 10 December 1912 ( 1912-12-10 ) || 41-218&0000000000000041.000000 41 years, &0000000000000218.000000 218 days || 08,403 8,403 days || 1935-12-13 13 December 1935 || 23,596 days ( &0000000000000064.000000 64 years, &0000000000000221.000000 221 days) ||
 * 13 || Sabatier, Paul [|Paul Sabatier] || 1854-11-05 5 November 1854 ( 1854-11-05 ) || 10 December 1912 ( 1912-12-10 ) || 58-035&0000000000000058.000000 58 years, &0000000000000035.000000 35 days || 10,474 10,474 days || 1941-08-14 14 August 1941 || 31,693 days ( &0000000000000086.000000 86 years, &0000000000000282.000000 282 days) ||
 * 14 || Werner, Alfred [|Alfred Werner] || 1866-12-12 12 December 1866 ( 1866-12-12 ) || 10 December 1913 ( 1913-12-10 ) || 46-363&0000000000000046.000000 46 years, &0000000000000363.000000 363 days || 02,166 2,166 days || 1919-11-15 15 November 1919 || 19,330 days ( &0000000000000052.000000 52 years, &0000000000000338.000000 338 days) ||
 * 15 || Richards, Theodore [|Theodore W. Richards] || 1868-01-31 31 January 1868 ( 1868-01-31 ) || 10 December 1914 ( 1914-12-10 ) || 46-313&0000000000000046.000000 46 years, &0000000000000313.000000 313 days || 04,862 4,862 days || 1928-04-02 2 April 1928 || 21,976 days ( &0000000000000060.000000 60 years, &0000000000000062.000000 62 days) ||
 * 16 || Willstatter, Richard [|Richard Willstätter] || 1872-08-13 13 August 1872 ( 1872-08-13 ) || 10 December 1915 ( 1915-12-10 ) || 43-119&0000000000000043.000000 43 years, &0000000000000119.000000 119 days || 09,733 9,733 days || 1942-08-03 3 August 1942 || 25,556 days ( &0000000000000069.000000 69 years, &0000000000000355.000000 355 days) ||
 * 17 || Haber, Fritz [|Fritz Haber] || 1868-12-09 9 December 1868 ( 1868-12-09 ) || 10 December 1918 ( 1918-12-10 ) || 50-001&0000000000000050.000000 50 years, &0000000000000001.000000 1 day || 05,529 5,529 days || 1934-01-29 29 January 1934 || 23,791 days ( &0000000000000065.000000 65 years, &0000000000000051.000000 51 days) ||
 * 18 || Nernst, Walther [|Walther Nernst] || 1864-06-25 25 June 1864 ( 1864-06-25 ) || 10 December 1920 ( 1920-12-10 ) || 56-168&0000000000000056.000000 56 years, &0000000000000168.000000 168 days || 07,648 7,648 days || 1941-11-18 18 November 1941 || 28,269 days ( &0000000000000077.000000 77 years, &0000000000000146.000000 146 days) ||
 * 19 || Soddy, Frederick [|Frederick Soddy] || 1877-09-02 2 September 1877 ( 1877-09-02 ) || 10 December 1921 ( 1921-12-10 ) || 44-099&0000000000000044.000000 44 years, &0000000000000099.000000 99 days || 12,705 12,705 days || 1956-09-22 22 September 1956 || 28,874 days ( &0000000000000079.000000 79 years, &0000000000000020.000000 20 days) ||
 * 20 || Aston, Francis [|Francis W. Aston] || 1877-09-01 1 September 1877 ( 1877-09-01 ) || 10 December 1922 ( 1922-12-10 ) || 45-100&0000000000000045.000000 45 years, &0000000000000100.000000 100 days || 08,381 8,381 days || 1945-11-20 20 November 1945 || 24,916 days ( &0000000000000068.000000 68 years, &0000000000000080.000000 80 days) ||
 * 21 || Pregl, Fritz [|Fritz Pregl] || 1869-09-03 3 September 1869 ( 1869-09-03 ) || 10 December 1923 ( 1923-12-10 ) || 54-098&0000000000000054.000000 54 years, &0000000000000098.000000 98 days || 02,560 2,560 days || 1930-12-13 13 December 1930 || 22,380 days ( &0000000000000061.000000 61 years, &0000000000000101.000000 101 days) ||
 * 22 || Zsigmondy, Richard [|Richard A. Zsigmondy] || 1865-04-01 1 April 1865 ( 1865-04-01 ) || 10 December 1925 ( 1925-12-10 ) || 60-253&0000000000000060.000000 60 years, &0000000000000253.000000 253 days || 01,383 1,383 days || 1929-09-23 23 September 1929 || 23,550 days ( &0000000000000064.000000 64 years, &0000000000000175.000000 175 days) ||
 * 23 || Svedberg, Theodor [|Theodor Svedberg] || 1884-08-30 30 August 1884 ( 1884-08-30 ) || 10 December 1926 ( 1926-12-10 ) || 42-102&0000000000000042.000000 42 years, &0000000000000102.000000 102 days || 16,148 16,148 days || 1971-02-25 25 February 1971 || 31,589 days ( &0000000000000086.000000 86 years, &0000000000000179.000000 179 days) ||
 * 24 || Wieland, Heinrich [|Heinrich O. Wieland] || 1877-06-04 4 June 1877 ( 1877-06-04 ) || 10 December 1927 ( 1927-12-10 ) || 50-189&0000000000000050.000000 50 years, &0000000000000189.000000 189 days || 10,831 10,831 days || 1957-08-05 5 August 1957 || 29,281 days ( &0000000000000080.000000 80 years, &0000000000000062.000000 62 days) ||
 * 25 || Windaus, Adolf [|Adolf Windaus] || 1876-12-25 25 December 1876 ( 1876-12-25 ) || 10 December 1928 ( 1928-12-10 ) || 51-351&0000000000000051.000000 51 years, &0000000000000351.000000 351 days || 11,138 11,138 days || 1959-06-09 9 June 1959 || 30,115 days ( &0000000000000082.000000 82 years, &0000000000000166.000000 166 days) ||
 * 26 || Harden, Arthur [|Arthur Harden] || 1865-10-12 12 October 1865 ( 1865-10-12 ) || 10 December 1929 ( 1929-12-10 ) || 64-059&0000000000000064.000000 64 years, &0000000000000059.000000 59 days || 03,842 3,842 days || 1940-06-17 17 June 1940 || 27,276 days ( &0000000000000074.000000 74 years, &0000000000000249.000000 249 days) ||
 * 27 || von Euler-Chelpin, Hans [|Hans von Euler-Chelpin] || 1873-02-15 15 February 1873 ( 1873-02-15 ) || 10 December 1929 ( 1929-12-10 ) || 56-298&0000000000000056.000000 56 years, &0000000000000298.000000 298 days || 12,750 12,750 days || 1964-11-06 6 November 1964 || 33,501 days ( &0000000000000091.000000 91 years, &0000000000000265.000000 265 days) ||
 * 28 || Fischer, Hans [|Hans Fischer] || 1881-07-27 27 July 1881 ( 1881-07-27 ) || 10 December 1930 ( 1930-12-10 ) || 49-136&0000000000000049.000000 49 years, &0000000000000136.000000 136 days || 05,225 5,225 days || 1945-03-31 31 March 1945 || 23,257 days ( &0000000000000063.000000 63 years, &0000000000000247.000000 247 days) ||
 * 29 || Bergius, Friedrich [|Friedrich Bergius] || 1884-10-11 11 October 1884 ( 1884-10-11 ) || 10 December 1931 ( 1931-12-10 ) || 47-060&0000000000000047.000000 47 years, &0000000000000060.000000 60 days || 06,320 6,320 days || 1949-03-30 30 March 1949 || 23,545 days ( &0000000000000064.000000 64 years, &0000000000000170.000000 170 days) ||
 * 30 || Bosch, Carl [|Carl Bosch] || 1874-08-27 27 August 1874 ( 1874-08-27 ) || 10 December 1931 ( 1931-12-10 ) || 57-105&0000000000000057.000000 57 years, &0000000000000105.000000 105 days || 03,060 3,060 days || 1940-04-26 26 April 1940 || 23,983 days ( &0000000000000065.000000 65 years, &0000000000000243.000000 243 days) ||
 * 31 || Langmuir, Irving [|Irving Langmuir] || 1881-01-31 31 January 1881 ( 1881-01-31 ) || 10 December 1932 ( 1932-12-10 ) || 51-314&0000000000000051.000000 51 years, &0000000000000314.000000 314 days || 09,015 9,015 days || 1957-08-16 16 August 1957 || 27,955 days ( &0000000000000076.000000 76 years, &0000000000000197.000000 197 days) ||
 * 32 || Urey, Harold [|Harold Urey] || 1893-04-29 29 April 1893 ( 1893-04-29 ) || 10 December 1934 ( 1934-12-10 ) || 41-225&0000000000000041.000000 41 years, &0000000000000225.000000 225 days || 16,828 16,828 days || 1981-01-05 5 January 1981 || 32,027 days ( &0000000000000087.000000 87 years, &0000000000000251.000000 251 days) ||
 * 33 || Joliot-Curie, Frederic [|Frédéric Joliot-Curie] || 1900-03-19 19 March 1900 ( 1900-03-19 ) || 10 December 1935 ( 1935-12-10 ) || 35-266&0000000000000035.000000 35 years, &0000000000000266.000000 266 days || 08,283 8,283 days || 1958-08-14 14 August 1958 || 21,332 days ( &0000000000000058.000000 58 years, &0000000000000148.000000 148 days) ||
 * 34 || Joliot-Curie, Irene [|Irène Joliot-Curie] || 1897-09-12 12 September 1897 ( 1897-09-12 ) || 10 December 1935 ( 1935-12-10 ) || 38-089&0000000000000038.000000 38 years, &0000000000000089.000000 89 days || 07,403 7,403 days || 1956-03-17 17 March 1956 || 21,370 days ( &0000000000000058.000000 58 years, &0000000000000187.000000 187 days) ||
 * 35 || Debye, Peter [|Peter Debye] || 1884-03-24 24 March 1884 ( 1884-03-24 ) || 10 December 1936 ( 1936-12-10 ) || 52-261&0000000000000052.000000 52 years, &0000000000000261.000000 261 days || 10,919 10,919 days || 1966-11-02 2 November 1966 || 30,172 days ( &0000000000000082.000000 82 years, &0000000000000223.000000 223 days) ||
 * 36 || Haworth, Walter [|Walter Haworth] || 1883-03-19 19 March 1883 ( 1883-03-19 ) || 10 December 1937 ( 1937-12-10 ) || 54-266&0000000000000054.000000 54 years, &0000000000000266.000000 266 days || 04,482 4,482 days || 1950-03-19 19 March 1950 || 24,471 days ( &0000000000000067.000000 67 years, &-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1.000000 0 days) ||
 * 37 || Karrer, Paul [|Paul Karrer] || 1889-04-21 21 April 1889 ( 1889-04-21 ) || 10 December 1937 ( 1937-12-10 ) || 48-233&0000000000000048.000000 48 years, &0000000000000233.000000 233 days || 12,243 12,243 days || 1971-06-18 18 June 1971 || 30,007 days ( &0000000000000082.000000 82 years, &0000000000000058.000000 58 days) ||
 * 38 || Kuhn, Richard [|Richard Kuhn][|[1]] || 1900-12-03 3 December 1900 ( 1900-12-03 ) || 10 December 1938 ( 1938-12-10 ) || 38-007&0000000000000038.000000 38 years, &0000000000000007.000000 7 days || 10,461 10,461 days || 1967-08-01 1 August 1967 || 24,347 days ( &0000000000000066.000000 66 years, &0000000000000241.000000 241 days) ||
 * 39 || Butenandt, Adolf [|Adolf Butenandt][|[1]] || 1903-03-24 24 March 1903 ( 1903-03-24 ) || 10 December 1939 ( 1939-12-10 ) || 36-261&0000000000000036.000000 36 years, &0000000000000261.000000 261 days || 20,128 20,128 days || 1995-01-18 18 January 1995 || 33,538 days ( &0000000000000091.000000 91 years, &0000000000000300.000000 300 days) ||
 * 40 || Ruzicka, Leopold [|Leopold Ružička] || 1887-09-13 13 September 1887 ( 1887-09-13 ) || 10 December 1939 ( 1939-12-10 ) || 52-088&0000000000000052.000000 52 years, &0000000000000088.000000 88 days || 13,440 13,440 days || 1976-09-26 26 September 1976 || 32,520 days ( &0000000000000089.000000 89 years, &0000000000000013.000000 13 days) ||
 * 41 || de Hevesy, George [|George de Hevesy] || 1885-08-01 1 August 1885 ( 1885-08-01 ) || 10 December 1943 ( 1943-12-10 ) || 58-131&0000000000000058.000000 58 years, &0000000000000131.000000 131 days || 08,243 8,243 days || 1966-07-05 5 July 1966 || 29,557 days ( &0000000000000080.000000 80 years, &0000000000000338.000000 338 days) ||
 * 42 || Hahn, Otto [|Otto Hahn] || 1879-03-08 8 March 1879 ( 1879-03-08 ) || 10 December 1944 ( 1944-12-10 ) || 65-277&0000000000000065.000000 65 years, &0000000000000277.000000 277 days || 08,631 8,631 days || 1968-07-28 28 July 1968 || 32,649 days ( &0000000000000089.000000 89 years, &0000000000000142.000000 142 days) ||
 * 43 || Virtanen, Artturi [|Artturi I. Virtanen] || 1895-01-15 15 January 1895 ( 1895-01-15 ) || 10 December 1945 ( 1945-12-10 ) || 50-329&0000000000000050.000000 50 years, &0000000000000329.000000 329 days || 10,198 10,198 days || 1973-11-11 11 November 1973 || 28,789 days ( &0000000000000078.000000 78 years, &0000000000000300.000000 300 days) ||
 * 44 || Northrop, John [|John H. Northrop] || 1891-07-05 5 July 1891 ( 1891-07-05 ) || 10 December 1946 ( 1946-12-10 ) || 55-158&0000000000000055.000000 55 years, &0000000000000158.000000 158 days || 14,778 14,778 days || 1987-05-27 27 May 1987 || 35,024 days ( &0000000000000095.000000 95 years, &0000000000000326.000000 326 days) ||
 * 45 || Stanley, Wendell [|Wendell M. Stanley] || 1904-08-16 16 August 1904 ( 1904-08-16 ) || 10 December 1946 ( 1946-12-10 ) || 42-116&0000000000000042.000000 42 years, &0000000000000116.000000 116 days || 08,953 8,953 days || 1971-06-15 15 June 1971 || 24,409 days ( &0000000000000066.000000 66 years, &0000000000000303.000000 303 days) ||
 * 46 || Sumner, James [|James B. Sumner] || 1887-11-19 19 November 1887 ( 1887-11-19 ) || 10 December 1946 ( 1946-12-10 ) || 59-021&0000000000000059.000000 59 years, &0000000000000021.000000 21 days || 03,167 3,167 days || 1955-08-12 12 August 1955 || 24,737 days ( &0000000000000067.000000 67 years, &0000000000000266.000000 266 days) ||
 * 47 || Robinson, Robert [|Robert Robinson] || 1886-09-13 13 September 1886 ( 1886-09-13 ) || 10 December 1947 ( 1947-12-10 ) || 61-088&0000000000000061.000000 61 years, &0000000000000088.000000 88 days || 09,922 9,922 days || 1975-02-08 8 February 1975 || 32,289 days ( &0000000000000088.000000 88 years, &0000000000000148.000000 148 days) ||
 * 48 || Tiselius, Arne [|Arne Tiselius] || 1902-08-10 10 August 1902 ( 1902-08-10 ) || 10 December 1948 ( 1948-12-10 ) || 46-122&0000000000000046.000000 46 years, &0000000000000122.000000 122 days || 08,358 8,358 days || 1971-10-29 29 October 1971 || 25,282 days ( &0000000000000069.000000 69 years, &0000000000000080.000000 80 days) ||
 * 49 || Giauque, William [|William Giauque] || 1895-05-12 12 May 1895 ( 1895-05-12 ) || 10 December 1949 ( 1949-12-10 ) || 54-212&0000000000000054.000000 54 years, &0000000000000212.000000 212 days || 11,796 11,796 days || 1982-03-28 28 March 1982 || 31,731 days ( &0000000000000086.000000 86 years, &0000000000000320.000000 320 days) ||
 * 50 || Alder, Kurt [|Kurt Alder] || 1902-07-10 10 July 1902 ( 1902-07-10 ) || 10 December 1950 ( 1950-12-10 ) || 48-153&0000000000000048.000000 48 years, &0000000000000153.000000 153 days || 02,749 2,749 days || 1958-06-20 20 June 1958 || 20,434 days ( &0000000000000055.000000 55 years, &0000000000000345.000000 345 days) ||
 * 51 || Diels, Otto [|Otto Diels] || 1876-01-23 23 January 1876 ( 1876-01-23 ) || 10 December 1950 ( 1950-12-10 ) || 74-321&0000000000000074.000000 74 years, &0000000000000321.000000 321 days || 01,183 1,183 days || 1954-03-07 7 March 1954 || 28,532 days ( &0000000000000078.000000 78 years, &0000000000000043.000000 43 days) ||
 * 52 || McMillan, Edwin [|Edwin McMillan] || 1907-09-18 18 September 1907 ( 1907-09-18 ) || 10 December 1951 ( 1951-12-10 ) || 44-083&0000000000000044.000000 44 years, &0000000000000083.000000 83 days || 14,516 14,516 days || 1991-09-07 7 September 1991 || 30,670 days ( &0000000000000083.000000 83 years, &0000000000000354.000000 354 days) ||
 * 53 || Seaborg, Glenn [|Glenn T. Seaborg] || 1912-04-19 19 April 1912 ( 1912-04-19 ) || 10 December 1951 ( 1951-12-10 ) || 39-235&0000000000000039.000000 39 years, &0000000000000235.000000 235 days || 17,244 17,244 days || 1999-02-25 25 February 1999 || 31,723 days ( &0000000000000086.000000 86 years, &0000000000000312.000000 312 days) ||
 * 54 || Martin, Archer [|Archer Martin] || 1910-03-01 1 March 1910 ( 1910-03-01 ) || 10 December 1952 ( 1952-12-10 ) || 42-284&0000000000000042.000000 42 years, &0000000000000284.000000 284 days || 18,127 18,127 days || 2002-07-28 28 July 2002 || 33,752 days ( &0000000000000092.000000 92 years, &0000000000000149.000000 149 days) ||
 * 55 || Synge, Richard [|Richard Synge] || 1914-10-28 28 October 1914 ( 1914-10-28 ) || 10 December 1952 ( 1952-12-10 ) || 38-043&0000000000000038.000000 38 years, &0000000000000043.000000 43 days || 15,226 15,226 days || 1994-08-18 18 August 1994 || 29,149 days ( &0000000000000079.000000 79 years, &0000000000000294.000000 294 days) ||
 * 56 || Staudinger, Hermann [|Hermann Staudinger] || 1881-03-23 23 March 1881 ( 1881-03-23 ) || 10 December 1953 ( 1953-12-10 ) || 72-262&0000000000000072.000000 72 years, &0000000000000262.000000 262 days || 04,290 4,290 days || 1965-09-08 8 September 1965 || 30,849 days ( &0000000000000084.000000 84 years, &0000000000000169.000000 169 days) ||
 * 57 || Pauling, Linus [|Linus Pauling] || 1901-02-28 28 February 1901 ( 1901-02-28 ) || 10 December 1954 ( 1954-12-10 ) || 53-285&0000000000000053.000000 53 years, &0000000000000285.000000 285 days || 14,497 14,497 days || 1994-08-19 19 August 1994 || 34,140 days ( &0000000000000093.000000 93 years, &0000000000000172.000000 172 days) ||
 * 58 || du Vigneaud, Vincent [|Vincent du Vigneaud] || 1901-05-18 18 May 1901 ( 1901-05-18 ) || 10 December 1955 ( 1955-12-10 ) || 54-206&0000000000000054.000000 54 years, &0000000000000206.000000 206 days || 08,402 8,402 days || 1978-12-11 11 December 1978 || 28,331 days ( &0000000000000077.000000 77 years, &0000000000000207.000000 207 days) ||
 * 59 || Hinshelwood, Cyril [|Cyril N. Hinshelwood] || 1897-06-19 19 June 1897 ( 1897-06-19 ) || 10 December 1956 ( 1956-12-10 ) || 59-174&0000000000000059.000000 59 years, &0000000000000174.000000 174 days || 03,955 3,955 days || 1967-10-09 9 October 1967 || 25,678 days ( &0000000000000070.000000 70 years, &0000000000000112.000000 112 days) ||
 * 60 || Semyonov, Nikolay [|Nikolay Semyonov] || 1896-04-15 15 April 1896 ( 1896-04-15 ) || 10 December 1956 ( 1956-12-10 ) || 60-239&0000000000000060.000000 60 years, &0000000000000239.000000 239 days || 10,881 10,881 days || 1986-09-35 25 September 1986 || 33,034 days ( &0000000000000090.000000 90 years, &0000000000000163.000000 163 days) ||
 * 61 || Todd, Alexander [|Alexander R. Todd] || 1907-10-02 2 October 1907 ( 1907-10-02 ) || 10 December 1957 ( 1957-12-10 ) || 50-069&0000000000000050.000000 50 years, &0000000000000069.000000 69 days || 14,276 14,276 days || 1997-01-10 10 January 1997 || 32,608 days ( &0000000000000089.000000 89 years, &0000000000000100.000000 100 days) ||
 * 62 || Sanger, Frederick [|Frederick Sanger][|[2]] || 1918-08-13 13 August 1918 ( 1918-08-13 ) || 10 December 1958 ( 1958-12-10 ) || 40-119&0000000000000040.000000 40 years, &0000000000000119.000000 119 days || 18,724 //18,724 days// || 2010-03-16 || //33,453 days// //( &0000000000000091.000000 91 years, &0000000000000215.000000 215 days)// ||
 * 63 || Heyrovsky, Jaroslav [|Jaroslav Heyrovský] || 1890-12-20 20 December 1890 ( 1890-12-20 ) || 10 December 1959 ( 1959-12-10 ) || 68-355&0000000000000068.000000 68 years, &0000000000000355.000000 355 days || 02,664 2,664 days || 1967-03-27 27 March 1967 || 27,855 days ( &0000000000000076.000000 76 years, &0000000000000097.000000 97 days) ||
 * 64 || Libby, Willard [|Willard Libby] || 1908-12-17 17 December 1908 ( 1908-12-17 ) || 10 December 1960 ( 1960-12-10 ) || 51-359&0000000000000051.000000 51 years, &0000000000000359.000000 359 days || 07,212 7,212 days || 1980-09-08 8 September 1980 || 26,198 days ( &0000000000000071.000000 71 years, &0000000000000266.000000 266 days) ||
 * 65 || Calvin, Melvin [|Melvin Calvin] || 1911-04-08 8 April 1911 ( 1911-04-08 ) || 10 December 1961 ( 1961-12-10 ) || 50-246&0000000000000050.000000 50 years, &0000000000000246.000000 246 days || 12,813 12,813 days || 1997-01-08 8 January 1997 || 31,322 days ( &0000000000000085.000000 85 years, &0000000000000275.000000 275 days) ||
 * 66 || Kendrew, John [|John Kendrew] || 1917-03-24 24 March 1917 ( 1917-03-24 ) || 10 December 1962 ( 1962-12-10 ) || 45-261&0000000000000045.000000 45 years, &0000000000000261.000000 261 days || 12,675 12,675 days || 1997-08-34 23 August 1997 || 29,372 days ( &0000000000000080.000000 80 years, &0000000000000152.000000 152 days) ||
 * 67 || Perutz, Max [|Max Perutz] || 1914-05-19 19 May 1914 ( 1914-05-19 ) || 10 December 1962 ( 1962-12-10 ) || 48-205&0000000000000048.000000 48 years, &0000000000000205.000000 205 days || 14,303 14,303 days || 2002-02-06 6 February 2002 || 32,040 days ( &0000000000000087.000000 87 years, &0000000000000263.000000 263 days) ||
 * 68 || Natta, Giulio [|Giulio Natta] || 1903-02-26 26 February 1903 ( 1903-02-26 ) || 10 December 1963 ( 1963-12-10 ) || 60-287&0000000000000060.000000 60 years, &0000000000000287.000000 287 days || 05,622 5,622 days || 1979-05-02 2 May 1979 || 27,824 days ( &0000000000000076.000000 76 years, &0000000000000065.000000 65 days) ||
 * 69 || Ziegler, Karl [|Karl Ziegler] || 1898-11-26 26 November 1898 ( 1898-11-26 ) || 10 December 1963 ( 1963-12-10 ) || 65-014&0000000000000065.000000 65 years, &0000000000000014.000000 14 days || 03,533 3,533 days || 1973-08-12 12 August 1973 || 27,287 days ( &0000000000000074.000000 74 years, &0000000000000259.000000 259 days) ||
 * 70 || Hodgkin, Dorothy [|Dorothy Hodgkin] || 1910-05-12 12 May 1910 ( 1910-05-12 ) || 10 December 1964 ( 1964-12-10 ) || 54-212&0000000000000054.000000 54 years, &0000000000000212.000000 212 days || 10,823 10,823 days || 1994-07-29 29 July 1994 || 30,759 days ( &0000000000000084.000000 84 years, &0000000000000078.000000 78 days) ||
 * 71 || Woodward, Robert [|Robert B. Woodward] || 1917-04-10 10 April 1917 ( 1917-04-10 ) || 10 December 1965 ( 1965-12-10 ) || 48-244&0000000000000048.000000 48 years, &0000000000000244.000000 244 days || 04,958 4,958 days || 1979-07-08 8 July 1979 || 22,734 days ( &0000000000000062.000000 62 years, &0000000000000089.000000 89 days) ||
 * 72 || Mulliken, Robert [|Robert S. Mulliken] || 1896-06-07 7 June 1896 ( 1896-06-07 ) || 10 December 1966 ( 1966-12-10 ) || 70-186&0000000000000070.000000 70 years, &0000000000000186.000000 186 days || 07,265 7,265 days || 1986-10-31 31 October 1986 || 33,017 days ( &0000000000000090.000000 90 years, &0000000000000146.000000 146 days) ||
 * 73 || Eigen, Manfred [|Manfred Eigen] || 1927-05-09 9 May 1927 ( 1927-05-09 ) || 10 December 1967 ( 1967-12-10 ) || 40-215&0000000000000040.000000 40 years, &0000000000000215.000000 215 days || 15,437 //15,437 days// || 2010-03-16 || //30,262 days// //( &0000000000000082.000000 82 years, &0000000000000311.000000 311 days)// ||
 * 74 || Norrish, Ronald [|Ronald Norrish] || 1897-11-09 9 November 1897 ( 1897-11-09 ) || 10 December 1967 ( 1967-12-10 ) || 70-031&0000000000000070.000000 70 years, &0000000000000031.000000 31 days || 03,832 3,832 days || 1978-06-07 7 June 1978 || 29,429 days ( &0000000000000080.000000 80 years, &0000000000000210.000000 210 days) ||
 * 75 || Porter, George [|George Porter] || 1920-12-06 6 December 1920 ( 1920-12-06 ) || 10 December 1967 ( 1967-12-10 ) || 47-004&0000000000000047.000000 47 years, &0000000000000004.000000 4 days || 12,683 12,683 days || 2002-08-31 31 August 2002 || 29,853 days ( &0000000000000081.000000 81 years, &0000000000000268.000000 268 days) ||
 * 76 || Onsager, Lars [|Lars Onsager] || 1903-11-27 27 November 1903 ( 1903-11-27 ) || 10 December 1968 ( 1968-12-10 ) || 65-013&0000000000000065.000000 65 years, &0000000000000013.000000 13 days || 02,856 2,856 days || 1976-10-05 5 October 1976 || 26,611 days ( &0000000000000072.000000 72 years, &0000000000000313.000000 313 days) ||
 * 77 || Barton, Derek [|Derek Barton] || 1918-09-08 8 September 1918 ( 1918-09-08 ) || 10 December 1969 ( 1969-12-10 ) || 51-093&0000000000000051.000000 51 years, &0000000000000093.000000 93 days || 10,323 10,323 days || 1998-03-16 16 March 1998 || 29,044 days ( &0000000000000079.000000 79 years, &0000000000000189.000000 189 days) ||
 * 78 || Hassel, Odd [|Odd Hassel] || 1897-05-17 17 May 1897 ( 1897-05-17 ) || 10 December 1969 ( 1969-12-10 ) || 72-207&0000000000000072.000000 72 years, &0000000000000207.000000 207 days || 04,170 4,170 days || 1981-05-11 11 May 1981 || 30,674 days ( &0000000000000083.000000 83 years, &0000000000000359.000000 359 days) ||
 * 79 || Leloir, Luis [|Luis F. Leloir] || 1906-09-06 6 September 1906 ( 1906-09-06 ) || 10 December 1970 ( 1970-12-10 ) || 64-095&0000000000000064.000000 64 years, &0000000000000095.000000 95 days || 06,201 6,201 days || 1987-12-02 2 December 1987 || 29,672 days ( &0000000000000081.000000 81 years, &0000000000000087.000000 87 days) ||
 * 80 || Herzberg, Gerhard [|Gerhard Herzberg] || 1904-12-25 25 December 1904 ( 1904-12-25 ) || 10 December 1971 ( 1971-12-10 ) || 66-350&0000000000000066.000000 66 years, &0000000000000350.000000 350 days || 09,945 9,945 days || 1999-03-03 3 March 1999 || 34,401 days ( &0000000000000094.000000 94 years, &0000000000000068.000000 68 days) ||
 * 81 || Anfinsen, Christian [|Christian B. Anfinsen] || 1916-30-26 26 March 1916 ( 1916-03-26 ) || 10 December 1972 ( 1972-12-10 ) || 56-259&0000000000000056.000000 56 years, &0000000000000259.000000 259 days || 08,190 8,190 days || 1995-05-14 14 May 1995 || 28,903 days ( &0000000000000079.000000 79 years, &0000000000000049.000000 49 days) ||
 * 82 || Moore, Stanford [|Stanford Moore] || 1913-09-04 4 September 1913 ( 1913-09-04 ) || 10 December 1972 ( 1972-12-10 ) || 59-097&0000000000000059.000000 59 years, &0000000000000097.000000 97 days || 03,543 3,543 days || 1982-08-23 23 August 1982 || 25,190 days ( &0000000000000068.000000 68 years, &0000000000000353.000000 353 days) ||
 * 83 || Stein, William [|William H. Stein] || 1911-06-25 25 June 1911 ( 1911-06-25 ) || 10 December 1972 ( 1972-12-10 ) || 61-168&0000000000000061.000000 61 years, &0000000000000168.000000 168 days || 02,610 2,610 days || 1980-02-02 2 February 1980 || 25,059 days ( &0000000000000068.000000 68 years, &0000000000000222.000000 222 days) ||
 * 84 || Fischer, Ernst [|Ernst O. Fischer] || 1918-11-10 10 November 1918 ( 1918-11-10 ) || 10 December 1973 ( 1973-12-10 ) || 55-030&0000000000000055.000000 55 years, &0000000000000030.000000 30 days || 12,278 12,278 days || 2007-07-23 23 July 2007 || 32,397 days ( &0000000000000088.000000 88 years, &0000000000000255.000000 255 days) ||
 * 85 || Wilkinson, Geoffrey [|Geoffrey Wilkinson] || 1921-07-14 14 July 1921 ( 1921-07-14 ) || 10 December 1973 ( 1973-12-10 ) || 52-149&0000000000000052.000000 52 years, &0000000000000149.000000 149 days || 08,326 8,326 days || 1996-09-26 26 September 1996 || 27,468 days ( &0000000000000075.000000 75 years, &0000000000000074.000000 74 days) ||
 * 86 || Flory, Paul [|Paul Flory] || 1910-06-19 19 June 1910 ( 1910-06-19 ) || 10 December 1974 ( 1974-12-10 ) || 64-174&0000000000000064.000000 64 years, &0000000000000174.000000 174 days || 03,926 3,926 days || 1985-09-09 9 September 1985 || 27,476 days ( &0000000000000075.000000 75 years, &0000000000000082.000000 82 days) ||
 * 87 || Cornforth, John [|John Cornforth] || 1917-09-07 7 September 1917 ( 1917-09-07 ) || 10 December 1975 ( 1975-12-10 ) || 58-094&0000000000000058.000000 58 years, &0000000000000094.000000 94 days || 12,515 //12,515 days// || 2010-03-16 || //33,793 days// //( &0000000000000092.000000 92 years, &0000000000000190.000000 190 days)// ||
 * 88 || Prelog, Vladimir [|Vladimir Prelog] || 1906-07-23 23 July 1906 ( 1906-07-23 ) || 10 December 1975 ( 1975-12-10 ) || 69-140&0000000000000069.000000 69 years, &0000000000000140.000000 140 days || 08,064 8,064 days || 1998-01-07 7 January 1998 || 33,406 days ( &0000000000000091.000000 91 years, &0000000000000168.000000 168 days) ||
 * 89 || Lipscomb, William [|William Lipscomb] || 1919-12-09 9 December 1919 ( 1919-12-09 ) || 10 December 1976 ( 1976-12-10 ) || 57-001&0000000000000057.000000 57 years, &0000000000000001.000000 1 day || 12,149 //12,149 days// || 2010-03-16 || //32,970 days// //( &0000000000000090.000000 90 years, &0000000000000097.000000 97 days)// ||
 * 90 || Prigogine, Ilya [|Ilya Prigogine] || 1917-01-25 25 January 1917 ( 1917-01-25 ) || 10 December 1977 ( 1977-12-10 ) || 60-319&0000000000000060.000000 60 years, &0000000000000319.000000 319 days || 09,300 9,300 days || 2003-05-28 28 May 2003 || 31,534 days ( &0000000000000086.000000 86 years, &0000000000000123.000000 123 days) ||
 * 91 || Mitchell, Peter [|Peter D. Mitchell] || 1920-09-29 29 September 1920 ( 1920-09-29 ) || 10 December 1978 ( 1978-12-10 ) || 58-072&0000000000000058.000000 58 years, &0000000000000072.000000 72 days || 04,870 4,870 days || 1992-04-10 10 April 1992 || 26,126 days ( &0000000000000071.000000 71 years, &0000000000000194.000000 194 days) ||
 * 92 || Brown, Herbert [|Herbert C. Brown] || 1912-05-22 22 May 1912 ( 1912-05-22 ) || 10 December 1979 ( 1979-12-10 ) || 67-202&0000000000000067.000000 67 years, &0000000000000202.000000 202 days || 141 days || 2004-12-19 19 December 2004 || 33,814 days ( &0000000000000092.000000 92 years, &0000000000000211.000000 211 days) ||
 * 93 || Wittig, Georg [|Georg Wittig] || 1897-06-16 16 June 1897 ( 1897-06-16 ) || 10 December 1979 ( 1979-12-10 ) || 82-177&0000000000000082.000000 82 years, &0000000000000177.000000 177 days || 02,816 2,816 days || 1987-08-26 26 August 1987 || 32,942 days ( &0000000000000090.000000 90 years, &0000000000000071.000000 71 days) ||
 * 94 || Berg, Paul [|Paul Berg] || 1926-06-30 30 June 1926 ( 1926-06-30 ) || 10 December 1980 ( 1980-12-10 ) || 54-163&0000000000000054.000000 54 years, &0000000000000163.000000 163 days || 10,688 //10,688 days// || 2010-03-16 || //30,575 days// //( &0000000000000083.000000 83 years, &0000000000000259.000000 259 days)// ||
 * 95 || Gilbert, Walter [|Walter Gilbert] || 1932-03-21 21 March 1932 ( 1932-03-21 ) || 10 December 1980 ( 1980-12-10 ) || 48-264&0000000000000048.000000 48 years, &0000000000000264.000000 264 days || 10,688 //10,688 days// || 2010-03-16 || //28,484 days// //( &0000000000000077.000000 77 years, &0000000000000360.000000 360 days)// ||
 * 96 || Sanger, Frederick [|Frederick Sanger][|[2]] || 1918-08-13 13 August 1918 ( 1918-08-13 ) || 10 December 1980 ( 1980-12-10 ) || 62-119&0000000000000062.000000 62 years, &0000000000000119.000000 119 days || 10,688 //10,688 days// || 2010-03-16 || //33,453 days// //( &0000000000000091.000000 91 years, &0000000000000215.000000 215 days)// ||
 * 97 || Fukui, Kenichi [|Kenichi Fukui] || 1918-10-04 4 October 1918 ( 1918-10-04 ) || 10 December 1981 ( 1981-12-10 ) || 63-067&0000000000000063.000000 63 years, &0000000000000067.000000 67 days || 05,874 5,874 days || 1998-01-09 9 January 1998 || 28,952 days ( &0000000000000079.000000 79 years, &0000000000000097.000000 97 days) ||
 * 98 || Hoffmann, Roald [|Roald Hoffmann] || 1937-07-18 18 July 1937 ( 1937-07-18 ) || 10 December 1981 ( 1981-12-10 ) || 44-145&0000000000000044.000000 44 years, &0000000000000145.000000 145 days || 10,323 //10,323 days// || 2010-03-16 || //26,539 days// //( &0000000000000072.000000 72 years, &0000000000000241.000000 241 days)// ||
 * 99 || Klug, Aaron [|Aaron Klug] || 1926-08-11 11 August 1926 ( 1926-08-11 ) || 10 December 1982 ( 1982-12-10 ) || 56-121&0000000000000056.000000 56 years, &0000000000000121.000000 121 days || 09,958 //9,958 days// || 2010-03-16 || //30,533 days// //( &0000000000000083.000000 83 years, &0000000000000217.000000 217 days)// ||
 * 100 || Taube, Henry [|Henry Taube] || 1915-11-30 30 November 1915 ( 1915-11-30 ) || 10 December 1983 ( 1983-12-10 ) || 68-010&0000000000000068.000000 68 years, &0000000000000010.000000 10 days || 08,012 8,012 days || 2005-11-16 16 November 2005 || 32,859 days ( &0000000000000089.000000 89 years, &0000000000000351.000000 351 days) ||
 * 101 || Merrifield, Robert [|Robert B. Merrifield] || 1921-07-15 15 July 1921 ( 1921-07-15 ) || 10 December 1984 ( 1984-12-10 ) || 63-148&0000000000000063.000000 63 years, &0000000000000148.000000 148 days || 07,825 7,825 days || 2006-05-14 14 May 2006 || 30,984 days ( &0000000000000084.000000 84 years, &0000000000000303.000000 303 days) ||
 * 102 || Hauptman, Herbert [|Herbert A. Hauptman] || 1917-02-14 14 February 1917 ( 1917-02-14 ) || 10 December 1985 ( 1985-12-10 ) || 68-299&0000000000000068.000000 68 years, &0000000000000299.000000 299 days || 08,862 //8,862 days// || 2010-03-16 || //33,998 days// //( &0000000000000093.000000 93 years, &0000000000000030.000000 30 days)// ||
 * 103 || Karle, Jerome [|Jerome Karle] || 1918-06-18 18 June 1918 ( 1918-06-18 ) || 10 December 1985 ( 1985-12-10 ) || 67-175&0000000000000067.000000 67 years, &0000000000000175.000000 175 days || 08,862 //8,862 days// || 2010-03-16 || //33,509 days// //( &0000000000000091.000000 91 years, &0000000000000271.000000 271 days)// ||
 * 104 || Herschbach, Dudley [|Dudley R. Herschbach] || 1932-06-18 18 June 1932 ( 1932-06-18 ) || 10 December 1986 ( 1986-12-10 ) || 54-175&0000000000000054.000000 54 years, &0000000000000175.000000 175 days || 08,497 //8,497 days// || 2010-03-16 || //28,395 days// //( &0000000000000077.000000 77 years, &0000000000000271.000000 271 days)// ||
 * 105 || Lee, Yuan [|Yuan T. Lee] || 1936-11-19 19 November 1936 ( 1936-11-19 ) || 10 December 1986 ( 1986-12-10 ) || 50-021&0000000000000050.000000 50 years, &0000000000000021.000000 21 days || 08,497 //8,497 days// || 2010-03-16 || //26,780 days// //( &0000000000000073.000000 73 years, &0000000000000117.000000 117 days)// ||
 * 106 || Polanyi, John [|John C. Polanyi] || 1929-01-23 23 January 1929 ( 1929-01-23 ) || 10 December 1986 ( 1986-12-10 ) || 57-321&0000000000000057.000000 57 years, &0000000000000321.000000 321 days || 08,497 //8,497 days// || 2010-03-16 || //29,637 days// //( &0000000000000081.000000 81 years, &0000000000000052.000000 52 days)// ||
 * 107 || Cram, Donald [|Donald J. Cram] || 1919-04-22 22 April 1919 ( 1919-04-22 ) || 10 December 1987 ( 1987-12-10 ) || 68-232&0000000000000068.000000 68 years, &0000000000000232.000000 232 days || 04,938 4,938 days || 2001-06-17 17 June 2001 || 30,007 days ( &0000000000000082.000000 82 years, &0000000000000056.000000 56 days) ||
 * 108 || Lehn, Jean-Marie [|Jean-Marie Lehn] || 1939-09-30 30 September 1939 ( 1939-09-30 ) || 10 December 1987 ( 1987-12-10 ) || 48-071&0000000000000048.000000 48 years, &0000000000000071.000000 71 days || 08,132 //8,132 days// || 2010-03-16 || //25,735 days// //( &0000000000000070.000000 70 years, &0000000000000167.000000 167 days)// ||
 * 109 || Pedersen, Charles [|Charles J. Pedersen] || 1904-10-03 3 October 1904 ( 1904-10-03 ) || 10 December 1987 ( 1987-12-10 ) || 83-068&0000000000000083.000000 83 years, &0000000000000068.000000 68 days || 00,686 686 days || 1989-10-26 26 October 1989 || 31,069 days ( &0000000000000085.000000 85 years, &0000000000000023.000000 23 days) ||
 * 110 || Deisenhofer, Johann [|Johann Deisenhofer] || 1943-09-30 30 September 1943 ( 1943-09-30 ) || 10 December 1988 ( 1988-12-10 ) || 45-071&0000000000000045.000000 45 years, &0000000000000071.000000 71 days || 07,766 //7,766 days// || 2010-03-16 || //24,274 days// //( &0000000000000066.000000 66 years, &0000000000000167.000000 167 days)// ||
 * 111 || Huber, Robert [|Robert Huber] || 1937-02-20 20 February 1937 ( 1937-02-20 ) || 10 December 1988 ( 1988-12-10 ) || 51-294&0000000000000051.000000 51 years, &0000000000000294.000000 294 days || 07,766 //7,766 days// || 2010-03-16 || //26,687 days// //( &0000000000000073.000000 73 years, &0000000000000024.000000 24 days)// ||
 * 112 || Michel, Hartmut [|Hartmut Michel] || 1948-07-18 18 July 1948 ( 1948-07-18 ) || 10 December 1988 ( 1988-12-10 ) || 40-145&0000000000000040.000000 40 years, &0000000000000145.000000 145 days || 07,766 //7,766 days// || 2010-03-16 || //22,521 days// //( &0000000000000061.000000 61 years, &0000000000000241.000000 241 days)// ||
 * 113 || Altman, Sidney [|Sidney Altman] || 1939-05-07 7 May 1939 ( 1939-05-07 ) || 10 December 1989 ( 1989-12-10 ) || 50-217&0000000000000050.000000 50 years, &0000000000000217.000000 217 days || 07,401 //7,401 days// || 2010-03-16 || //25,881 days// //( &0000000000000070.000000 70 years, &0000000000000313.000000 313 days)// ||
 * 114 || Cech, Thomas [|Thomas Cech] || 1947-12-08 8 December 1947 ( 1947-12-08 ) || 10 December 1989 ( 1989-12-10 ) || 42-002&0000000000000042.000000 42 years, &0000000000000002.000000 2 days || 07,401 //7,401 days// || 2010-03-16 || //22,744 days// //( &0000000000000062.000000 62 years, &0000000000000098.000000 98 days)// ||
 * 115 || Corey, Elias [|Elias J. Corey] || 1928-07-12 12 July 1928 ( 1928-07-12 ) || 10 December 1990 ( 1990-12-10 ) || 62-151&0000000000000062.000000 62 years, &0000000000000151.000000 151 days || 07,036 //7,036 days// || 2010-03-16 || //29,832 days// //( &0000000000000081.000000 81 years, &0000000000000247.000000 247 days)// ||
 * 116 || Ernst, Richard [|Richard R. Ernst] || 1933-08-14 14 August 1933 ( 1933-08-14 ) || 10 December 1991 ( 1991-12-10 ) || 58-118&0000000000000058.000000 58 years, &0000000000000118.000000 118 days || 06,671 //6,671 days// || 2010-03-16 || //27,973 days// //( &0000000000000076.000000 76 years, &0000000000000214.000000 214 days)// ||
 * 117 || Marcus, Rudolph [|Rudolph A. Marcus] || 1923-07-21 21 July 1923 ( 1923-07-21 ) || 10 December 1992 ( 1992-12-10 ) || 69-142&0000000000000069.000000 69 years, &0000000000000142.000000 142 days || 06,305 //6,305 days// || 2010-03-16 || //31,650 days// //( &0000000000000086.000000 86 years, &0000000000000238.000000 238 days)// ||
 * 118 || Mullis, Kary [|Kary Mullis] || 1944-12-28 28 December 1944 ( 1944-12-28 ) || 10 December 1993 ( 1993-12-10 ) || 48-347&0000000000000048.000000 48 years, &0000000000000347.000000 347 days || 05,940 //5,940 days// || 2010-03-16 || //23,819 days// //( &0000000000000065.000000 65 years, &0000000000000078.000000 78 days)// ||
 * 119 || Smith, Michael [|Michael Smith] || 1932-04-26 26 April 1932 ( 1932-04-26 ) || 10 December 1993 ( 1993-12-10 ) || 61-228&0000000000000061.000000 61 years, &0000000000000228.000000 228 days || 02,490 2,490 days || 2000-10-04 4 October 2000 || 24,998 days ( &0000000000000068.000000 68 years, &0000000000000161.000000 161 days) ||
 * 120 || Olah, George [|George A. Olah] || 1927-05-22 22 May 1927 ( 1927-05-22 ) || 10 December 1994 ( 1994-12-10 ) || 67-202&0000000000000067.000000 67 years, &0000000000000202.000000 202 days || 05,575 //5,575 days// || 2010-03-16 || //30,249 days// //( &0000000000000082.000000 82 years, &0000000000000298.000000 298 days)// ||
 * 121 || Crutzen, Paul [|Paul J. Crutzen] || 1933-12-03 3 December 1933 ( 1933-12-03 ) || 10 December 1995 ( 1995-12-10 ) || 62-007&0000000000000062.000000 62 years, &0000000000000007.000000 7 days || 05,210 //5,210 days// || 2010-03-16 || //27,862 days// //( &0000000000000076.000000 76 years, &0000000000000103.000000 103 days)// ||
 * 122 || Molina, Mario [|Mario J. Molina] || 1943-03-19 19 March 1943 ( 1943-03-19 ) || 10 December 1995 ( 1995-12-10 ) || 52-266&0000000000000052.000000 52 years, &0000000000000266.000000 266 days || 05,210 //5,210 days// || 2010-03-16 || //24,469 days// //( &0000000000000066.000000 66 years, &0000000000000362.000000 362 days)// ||
 * 123 || Rowland, Frank [|Frank S. Rowland] || 1927-06-28 28 June 1927 ( 1927-06-28 ) || 10 December 1994 ( 1994-12-10 ) || 67-165&0000000000000067.000000 67 years, &0000000000000165.000000 165 days || 05,575 //5,575 days// || 2010-03-16 || //30,212 days// //( &0000000000000082.000000 82 years, &0000000000000261.000000 261 days)// ||
 * 124 || Curl, Robert [|Robert Curl] || 1933-08-23 23 August 1933 ( 1933-08-23 ) || 10 December 1996 ( 1996-12-10 ) || 63-109&0000000000000063.000000 63 years, &0000000000000109.000000 109 days || 04,844 //4,844 days// || 2010-03-16 || //27,964 days// //( &0000000000000076.000000 76 years, &0000000000000205.000000 205 days)// ||
 * 125 || Kroto, Harold [|Harold Kroto] || 1939-10-07 7 October 1939 ( 1939-10-07 ) || 10 December 1996 ( 1996-12-10 ) || 57-064&0000000000000057.000000 57 years, &0000000000000064.000000 64 days || 04,844 //4,844 days// || 2010-03-16 || //25,728 days// //( &0000000000000070.000000 70 years, &0000000000000160.000000 160 days)// ||
 * 126 || Smalley, Richard [|Richard Smalley] || 1943-06-06 6 June 1943 ( 1943-06-06 ) || 10 December 1996 ( 1996-12-10 ) || 53-187&0000000000000053.000000 53 years, &0000000000000187.000000 187 days || 03,244 3,244 days || 2005-10-28 28 October 2005 || 22,790 days ( &0000000000000062.000000 62 years, &0000000000000144.000000 144 days) ||
 * 127 || Boyer, Paul [|Paul D. Boyer] || 1918-07-31 31 July 1918 ( 1918-07-31 ) || 10 December 1997 ( 1997-12-10 ) || 79-132&0000000000000079.000000 79 years, &0000000000000132.000000 132 days || 04,479 //4,479 days// || 2010-03-16 || //33,466 days// //( &0000000000000091.000000 91 years, &0000000000000228.000000 228 days)// ||
 * 128 || Skou, Jens [|Jens C. Skou] || 1918-10-08 8 October 1918 ( 1918-10-08 ) || 10 December 1997 ( 1997-12-10 ) || 79-063&0000000000000079.000000 79 years, &0000000000000063.000000 63 days || 04,479 //4,479 days// || 2010-03-16 || //33,397 days// //( &0000000000000091.000000 91 years, &0000000000000159.000000 159 days)// ||
 * 129 || Walker, John [|John E. Walker] || 1941-01-07 7 January 1941 ( 1941-01-07 ) || 10 December 1997 ( 1997-12-10 ) || 56-337&0000000000000056.000000 56 years, &0000000000000337.000000 337 days || 04,479 //4,479 days// || 2010-03-16 || //25,270 days// //( &0000000000000069.000000 69 years, &0000000000000068.000000 68 days)// ||
 * 130 || Kohn, Walter [|Walter Kohn] || 1923-03-09 9 March 1923 ( 1923-03-09 ) || 10 December 1998 ( 1998-12-10 ) || 75-276&0000000000000075.000000 75 years, &0000000000000276.000000 276 days || 04,114 //4,114 days// || 2010-03-16 || //31,784 days// //( &0000000000000087.000000 87 years, &0000000000000007.000000 7 days)// ||
 * 131 || Pople, John [|John Pople] || 1925-10-31 31 October 1925 ( 1925-10-31 ) || 10 December 1998 ( 1998-12-10 ) || 73-040&0000000000000073.000000 73 years, &0000000000000040.000000 40 days || 01,922 1,922 days || 2004-03-15 15 March 2004 || 28,625 days ( &0000000000000078.000000 78 years, &0000000000000136.000000 136 days) ||
 * 132 || Zewail, Ahmed [|Ahmed Zewail] || 1946-02-26 26 February 1946 ( 1946-02-26 ) || 10 December 1999 ( 1999-12-10 ) || 53-287&0000000000000053.000000 53 years, &0000000000000287.000000 287 days || 03,749 //3,749 days// || 2010-03-16 || //23,394 days// //( &0000000000000064.000000 64 years, &0000000000000018.000000 18 days)// ||
 * 133 || Heeger, Alan [|Alan J. Heeger] || 1936-01-22 22 January 1936 ( 1936-01-22 ) || 10 December 2000 ( 2000-12-10 ) || 64-323&0000000000000064.000000 64 years, &0000000000000323.000000 323 days || 03,383 //3,383 days// || 2010-03-16 || //27,082 days// //( &0000000000000074.000000 74 years, &0000000000000053.000000 53 days)// ||
 * 134 || MacDiarmid, Alan [|Alan MacDiarmid] || 1927-04-14 14 April 1927 ( 1927-04-14 ) || 10 December 2000 ( 2000-12-10 ) || 73-240&0000000000000073.000000 73 years, &0000000000000240.000000 240 days || 02,250 2,250 days || 2007-02-07 7 February 2007 || 29,154 days ( &0000000000000079.000000 79 years, &0000000000000299.000000 299 days) ||
 * 135 || Shirakawa, Hideki [|Hideki Shirakawa] || 1936-08-20 20 August 1936 ( 1936-08-20 ) || 10 December 2000 ( 2000-12-10 ) || 64-112&0000000000000064.000000 64 years, &0000000000000112.000000 112 days || 03,383 //3,383 days// || 2010-03-16 || //26,871 days// //( &0000000000000073.000000 73 years, &0000000000000208.000000 208 days)// ||
 * 136 || Knowles, William [|William S. Knowles] || 1917-06-01 1 June 1917 ( 1917-06-01 ) || 10 December 2001 ( 2001-12-10 ) || 84-192&0000000000000084.000000 84 years, &0000000000000192.000000 192 days || 03,018 //3,018 days// || 2010-03-16 || //33,891 days// //( &0000000000000092.000000 92 years, &0000000000000288.000000 288 days)// ||
 * 137 || Noyori, Ryoji [|Ryoji Noyori] || 1938-09-03 3 September 1938 ( 1938-09-03 ) || 10 December 2001 ( 2001-12-10 ) || 63-098&0000000000000063.000000 63 years, &0000000000000098.000000 98 days || 03,018 //3,018 days// || 2010-03-16 || //26,127 days// //( &0000000000000071.000000 71 years, &0000000000000194.000000 194 days)// ||
 * 138 || Sharpless, Karl [|Karl B. Sharpless] || 1941-04-28 28 April 1941 ( 1941-04-28 ) || 10 December 2001 ( 2001-12-10 ) || 60-226&0000000000000060.000000 60 years, &0000000000000226.000000 226 days || 03,018 //3,018 days// || 2010-03-16 || //25,159 days// //( &0000000000000068.000000 68 years, &0000000000000322.000000 322 days)// ||
 * 139 || Fenn, John [|John B. Fenn] || 1917-06-15 15 June 1917 ( 1917-06-15 ) || 10 December 2002 ( 2002-12-10 ) || 85-178&0000000000000085.000000 85 years, &0000000000000178.000000 178 days || 02,653 //2,653 days// || 2010-03-16 || //33,877 days// //( &0000000000000092.000000 92 years, &0000000000000274.000000 274 days)// ||
 * 140 || Tanaka, Koichi [|Koichi Tanaka] || 1959-08-03 3 August 1959 ( 1959-08-03 ) || 10 December 2002 ( 2002-12-10 ) || 43-129&0000000000000043.000000 43 years, &0000000000000129.000000 129 days || 02,653 //2,653 days// || 2010-03-16 || //18,488 days// //( &0000000000000050.000000 50 years, &0000000000000225.000000 225 days)// ||
 * 141 || Wuthrich, Kurt [|Kurt Wüthrich] || 1938-10-04 4 October 1938 ( 1938-10-04 ) || 10 December 2002 ( 2002-12-10 ) || 64-067&0000000000000064.000000 64 years, &0000000000000067.000000 67 days || 02,653 //2,653 days// || 2010-03-16 || //26,096 days// //( &0000000000000071.000000 71 years, &0000000000000163.000000 163 days)// ||
 * 142 || Agre, Peter [|Peter Agre] || 1949-01-30 30 January 1949 ( 1949-01-30 ) || 10 December 2003 ( 2003-12-10 ) || 54-314&0000000000000054.000000 54 years, &0000000000000314.000000 314 days || 02,288 //2,288 days// || 2010-03-16 || //22,325 days// //( &0000000000000061.000000 61 years, &0000000000000045.000000 45 days)// ||
 * 143 || MacKinnon, Roderick [|Roderick MacKinnon] || 1956-02-19 19 February 1956 ( 1956-02-19 ) || 10 December 2003 ( 2003-12-10 ) || 47-294&0000000000000047.000000 47 years, &0000000000000294.000000 294 days || 02,288 //2,288 days// || 2010-03-16 || //19,749 days// //( &0000000000000054.000000 54 years, &0000000000000025.000000 25 days)// ||
 * 144 || Ciechanover, Aaron [|Aaron Ciechanover] || 1947-10-01 1 October 1947 ( 1947-10-01 ) || 10 December 2004 ( 2004-12-10 ) || 57-070&0000000000000057.000000 57 years, &0000000000000070.000000 70 days || 01,922 //1,922 days// || 2010-03-16 || //22,812 days// //( &0000000000000062.000000 62 years, &0000000000000166.000000 166 days)// ||
 * 145 || Hershko, Avram [|Avram Hershko] || 1937-12-31 31 December 1937 ( 1937-12-31 ) || 10 December 2004 ( 2004-12-10 ) || 66-345&0000000000000066.000000 66 years, &0000000000000345.000000 345 days || 01,922 //1,922 days// || 2010-03-16 || //26,373 days// //( &0000000000000072.000000 72 years, &0000000000000075.000000 75 days)// ||
 * 146 || Rose, Irwin [|Irwin Rose] || 1926-07-16 16 July 1926 ( 1926-07-16 ) || 10 December 2004 ( 2004-12-10 ) || 78-147&0000000000000078.000000 78 years, &0000000000000147.000000 147 days || 01,922 //1,922 days// || 2010-03-16 || //30,559 days// //( &0000000000000083.000000 83 years, &0000000000000243.000000 243 days)// ||
 * 147 || Chauvin, Yves [|Yves Chauvin] || 1930-10-10 10 October 1930 ( 1930-10-10 ) || 10 December 2005 ( 2005-12-10 ) || 75-061&0000000000000075.000000 75 years, &0000000000000061.000000 61 days || 01,557 //1,557 days// || 2010-03-16 || //29,012 days// //( &0000000000000079.000000 79 years, &0000000000000157.000000 157 days)// ||
 * 148 || Grubbs, Robert [|Robert H. Grubbs] || 1942-02-27 27 February 1942 ( 1942-02-27 ) || 10 December 2005 ( 2005-12-10 ) || 63-286&0000000000000063.000000 63 years, &0000000000000286.000000 286 days || 01,557 //1,557 days// || 2010-03-16 || //24,854 days// //( &0000000000000068.000000 68 years, &0000000000000017.000000 17 days)// ||
 * 149 || Schrock, Richard [|Richard R. Schrock] || 1945-01-04 4 January 1945 ( 1945-01-04 ) || 10 December 2005 ( 2005-12-10 ) || 60-340&0000000000000060.000000 60 years, &0000000000000340.000000 340 days || 01,557 //1,557 days// || 2010-03-16 || //23,812 days// //( &0000000000000065.000000 65 years, &0000000000000071.000000 71 days)// ||
 * 150 || Kornberg, Roger [|Roger D. Kornberg] || 1947-04-24 24 April 1947 ( 1947-04-24 ) || 10 December 2006 ( 2006-12-10 ) || 59-230&0000000000000059.000000 59 years, &0000000000000230.000000 230 days || 01,192 //1,192 days// || 2010-03-16 || //22,972 days// //( &0000000000000062.000000 62 years, &0000000000000326.000000 326 days)// ||
 * 151 || Ertl, Gerhard [|Gerhard Ertl] || 1936-10-10 10 October 1936 ( 1936-10-10 ) || 10 December 2007 ( 2007-12-10 ) || 71-061&0000000000000071.000000 71 years, &0000000000000061.000000 61 days || 00,827 //827 days// || 2010-03-16 || //26,820 days// //( &0000000000000073.000000 73 years, &0000000000000157.000000 157 days)// ||
 * 152 || Chalfie, Martin [|Martin Chalfie] || 1947-01-15 15 January 1947 ( 1947-01-15 ) || 10 December 2008 ( 2008-12-10 ) || 61-330&0000000000000061.000000 61 years, &0000000000000330.000000 330 days || 00,461 //461 days// || 2010-03-16 || //23,071 days// //( &0000000000000063.000000 63 years, &0000000000000060.000000 60 days)// ||
 * 153 || Shimomura, Osamu [|Osamu Shimomura] || 1928-08-27 27 August 1928 ( 1928-08-27 ) || 10 December 2008 ( 2008-12-10 ) || 80-105&0000000000000080.000000 80 years, &0000000000000105.000000 105 days || 00,461 //461 days// || 2010-03-16 || //29,786 days// //( &0000000000000081.000000 81 years, &0000000000000201.000000 201 days)// ||
 * 154 || Tsien, Roger [|Roger Y. Tsien] || 1952-02-01 1 February 1952 ( 1952-02-01 ) || 10 December 2008 ( 2008-12-10 ) || 56-313&0000000000000056.000000 56 years, &0000000000000313.000000 313 days || 00,461 //461 days// || 2010-03-16 || //21,228 days// //( &0000000000000058.000000 58 years, &0000000000000043.000000 43 days)// ||
 * 155 || Ramakrishnan, Venkatraman [|V. Ramakrishnan] || 1952-00-00 1952 || 10 December 2009 ( 2009-12-10 ) || 57-000 ~57 years || 00,0096 //96 days// || 2010-03-16 || 21,259 //~58 years// ||
 * 156 || Steitz, Thomas [|Thomas A. Steitz] || 1940-08-23 23 August 1940 ( 1940-08-23 ) || 10 December 2009 ( 2009-12-10 ) || 69-109&0000000000000069.000000 69 years, &0000000000000109.000000 109 days || 00,0096 //96 days// || 2010-03-16 || //25,407 days// //( &0000000000000069.000000 69 years, &0000000000000205.000000 205 days)// ||
 * 157 || Yonath, Ada [|Ada Yonath] || 1939-06-22 22 June 1939 ( 1939-06-22 ) || 10 December 2009 ( 2009-12-10 ) || 70-171&0000000000000070.000000 70 years, &0000000000000171.000000 171 days || 00,0096 //96 days// || 2010-03-16 || //25,835 days// //( &0000000000000070.000000 70 years, &0000000000000267.000000 267 days)// ||
 * ~ # ||~ Laureate ||~ Date of birth ||~ Date of

Indian Chemistry Through The Ages by D.P. Agrawal
It is now known that alchemy (the older form of chemistry) had made great strides in India. Ayurveda, which used a variety of minerals, also played an important role in the development of chemistry. It developed as iatrochemistry, which was closely related to medicine. The two main incentives for the development of chemistry were the age-old desires of human beings: to live forever and to get rich. Much of chemistry grew out of the early efforts to develop an elixir and to turn base metals into gold. It is also interesting to note that Needham claimed that earliest distillation of alcohol is attested to through the archaeological finds at Taxila. In fact, the ancient name of alcohol is //khola//, which sounds so similar to it!

1. Indus Valley Civilization (2600-1900 BC)
The Indus valley civilization was the earliest society, which had developed an elaborate urban system depicted in terms of streets, public baths, temples and granaries etc. They also had the means of mass production of pottery, houses of backed bricks and a script of their own. So we can say that the story of early chemistry in India begins from here. //Pottery//: It could be regarded as the earliest chemical process in which materials were mixed, moulded and fired to achieve desirable qualities. Thousands of pieces of pottery were found in the Rajasthan desert, varied in shape, size and colour. They show that prehistoric people knew the art of making pottery by using burnt clay. Coloured and wheel made pottery was found at Harappa. Pottery was decorated with various designs including geometric and floral patterns as well as human and animals figures. Remains of glazed pottery were also found at Mohenjodaro. //Bricks//: Burnt bricks were manufactured on a large scale for making houses, drains, boundary walls, public bath etc. //Cement//: Gypsum cement had been used in the construction of a well in Mohenjodaro. It was light grey and contained sand, clay, traces of calcium carbonate and lime. //Minerals//: The Indus valley people used a number of minerals for a variety of useful products such as medicinal preparations, plasters, hair washes etc. Faience, which is a sort of proto-glass, was quite popular with the Harappans and was used for ornaments. They also smelted and forged a variety of objects from lead, silver, gold, and copper; and also used tin and arsenic to improve the hardness of copper for making artefacts.

2. The Historic Period
According to //Rgveda//, tanning of leather and dyeing of cotton was practised during this period. During the period c.1000-400 BC they made a particular kind of polished grey pottery known as Painted Grey Ware. Other varieties of pottery, for example, red or Northern Black-Polished (N.B.P.) Ware (600-200 BC), were also made later. These Wares indicate their mastery of control of kiln temperatures as also of the reducing atmosphere. The golden gloss of the NBP Ware is still a chemical mystery and could not be replicated.After the Vedas, came the classical texts like //Brahmanas//, //Upanishadas// and //Puranas//, which also give valuable information about the chemical activities of this period. Kautilya's //Arthasastra// (KA) was a scientific landmark of this period. KA described the production of salt from the sea and collection of shells, diamonds, pearls and corals. //Charaka Samhita// and //Susruta Samhita// were two celebrated Ayurvedic treatises on medicine and surgery. Chemical knowledge of the times especially that related to medicine was compiled in them.

3. Chemical Arts and Crafts in Later Periods
Glass making, pottery, jewellery making, dyeing of clothes and tanning of leather etc. were the major chemical arts and crafts in the early periods. As a result of this expanded activity, the alchemical knowledge increased. Following were the major chemical products that contributed to the development of chemistry. //Glass//: Glass is a fused solid mixture of a number of substances like lime, sand, alkali and metallic oxides. It is of various kinds - transparent, opaque, coloured and colourless. No glass objects were found at the sites of the Indus valley civilization, except for some glazed and faience articles. A number of such glass objects were found at Maski in south India (1000-900BC), Hastinapur and Taxila (1000-200BC). In this period glass and glazes were coloured by the addition of colouring agents like metal oxides. //Ramayana//, //Brhatsamhita//, Kautilya's //Arthasatra// and //Sukranitisara// mention the use of glass. There is ample evidence to suggest that ancient India glass making was quite widespread and a high degree of perfection was achieved in this craft. There was a traditional glass factory at Kopia in Basti district of Uttar Pradesh. Glass slag was found at Kolhapur, Nevasa, Paunar and Maheshwar. Glass furnaces of late medieval period were found at Mysore. The Mughal period (AD1526-1707) saw the flourishing of the art of glass making in India. //Paper//: From the Chinese traveller I-tsing's account it appears that paper was known to India in the seventh century AD. In the beginning the process of papermaking was simple and more or less similar in all parts of the country. The main centers of paper making in medieval India were Sialkot, Zafarbad, Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Mysore etc. //Soap//: For washing clothes ancient Indians used certain plants and their fruits like the soap nuts of Ritha and Sikakai. Fruits like //Sriphala// and //Sarsapa// (//Brassica compestris//) were also used to wash different kinds of clothes. Guru Nanak's prayer written in the late sixteenth century AD contains the earliest reference to soap. There were references to soap like substances called //Phenaka// in the second and third century AD texts like //Manusmrti// and //Yajnavalkyasmrti//. Indians definitely began to make proper soaps in the eighteenth century AD. In Gujarat, the oil of Eranda (//Ricinus communis//), seeds of plant Mahua (//Madhuca indica//) and impure calcium carbonate were used by them. These were used for washing but gradually soft soaps for bathing were made. //Dyeing//: Plants and their products like madder, turmeric and safflower were the principal dyeing materials. Orpiment and some insects like lac, cochineal and kermes were the other materials used for dyeing. A number of classical texts like //Atharvaveda// (1000 BC) mentioned some dye stuffs. Dyes were extracted from inorganic substances by repeatedly soaking and mixing them in water and allowing the materials to settle. Then the solution was taken out and spread on a pot and evaporated to get the dry dye. Some other substances having tinting properties were Kampillaka (//Mallotus phillippinesis//), Pattanga (//Cesalpinia sappan//) and Jatuka (a species of //Oldenlandia//). A large number of other materials were also used for dyeing. Synthetic dyes were made by mid-nineteenth century. //Cosmetics and Perfumes//: A large number of references to cosmetics and perfumes in Sanskrit literature were found like in //Brhatsamhita// of Varahamihira. Cosmetics and perfumes making were mainly practised for the purpose of worship, sale and sensual enjoyment. The Bower Manuscript (//Navanitaka//) contained recipes of hair dyes which consisted of a number of plants like indigo and minerals like iron powder, black iron or steel and acidic extracts of sour rice gruel. //Gandhayukti// gave recipes for making scents. It gives a list of eight aromatic ingredients used for making scents. They were: //Rodhara, Usira, Bignonia, Aguru, Musta, Vana, Priyangu//, and //Pathya//. The //Gandhayukti// also gave recipes for mouth perfumes, bath powders, incense and talcum powder. The manufacture of rose water began perhaps in the nineteenth century AD. //Ink//: An inkpot was unearthed during the excavations at Taxila, which suggests that ink was known and used in India from fourth century BC. The Ajanta caves displayed some inscriptions that were written with coloured ink, made from chalk, red lead and minium. Chinese, Japanese and Indians had used Indian ink for quite a long time. The recipe for ink was also given in //Rasaratnakara// of Nityanatha. The ink made from nuts and myrobalans kept in water in an iron pot was black and durable. This ink was used in Malabara and other parts of the country as well. Special ink prepared from roasted rice, lampblack, sugar and the juice of plant Kesurte (//Verbsina scandens//) was used in the Jain manuscripts. Ink was made both in liquid and solid forms, by using lampblack, gum of the plant //Mimosa indica// and water in the nineteenth century. Tannin's solution became dark blue-black or greenish by the addition of ferric salts and it seems that this fact was known to Indians during late medieval period, and they used this solution for ink making. //Alcoholic liquors//: //Somarasa//, which was mentioned in the Vedas, was probably the earliest evidence of the use of intoxicants in India. Kautilya's //Arthasastra// listed a variety of liquors such as //Medaka, Prasanna, Asava, Arista, Maireya// and //Madhu//. //Caraka Samhita// also mentioned sources for making various //Asavas//: cereals, fruits, roots, woods, flowers, stems, leaves, barks of plants and sugar cane. About 60 Tamil names were found in Sangam literature, which suggest that liquors were brewed in south India since the ancient times. Medieval alchemical texts also mentioned fermented liquors and their methods of preparation. Alcoholic liquors were classified into the following categories depending on their applications in alchemical operations: //Susruta-Samhita// used the word //khola// for alcoholic beverages; perhaps the modern word alcohol is derived from it. A large number of alcoholic preparations were described in various texts. More startling is the fact that Needham attributes the earliest distillation of alcohol to India. In Vol. V (4) of //Science and Civilisation// (especially pages 85-6,97,104-7 and 131-2), Needham offers a fundamental reconstruction of the history of liquor distillation in India, and, by its reconstruction has forced a review of the theory prevalent until recently that the production of alcohol originated in the Mediterranean world in the thirteenth century. Habib informs us that Needham shows much respect for Mehdi Hassan, who had in many papers drawn attention to possible evidence of early liquor-distillation in India; and he had, of course, before him Ray's //History of Hindu Chemistry//, with its citations of early medieval texts on distillation. None of this, even the linguistic curiosity inherent in the double meaning of //sunda// (elephant's trunk, side tube), gave any certainty of India's role in the early history of alcohol production. But Needham carefully analysed the archaeological evidence of stills from Taxila, first brought to light by Marshall and A. Ghosh and others with numerous remains of stills from the Shaikhan Dheri (Charsadda, NWFP, Pakistan) excavation. Needham gave these stills the name of "Gandhara stills", compared them with the western or Hellenistic type of his still-classification, and then propounded that they were essentially "retorts" and, because of their early date (150 BC-150 AD), they might well be "the origin of all such forms of still". The pottery remains at Shaikhan Dheri were so extensive, viz. one alembic, 130 receivers so capacious, that one must assume alcohol (not, for example, mercury) to be the intended product. This would give precedence to India over all other countries in liquor distillation. Needham's discussion does not, however, make clear what degree of success the Gandhara stills could obtain in producing pure alcohol. It could have given only a heavily diluted alcohol, and, if the fire was kept low, to reduce dilution, the pace of collection must have been very slow. The modifications that were introduced in Italy in the twelfth century (possibly in close exchange or ideas with the Arab world, as some terms tend to show) were designed to improve cooling so as to increase pure alcohol collection at a low level of heat. The "Moore's head" had a water-container set over a spoon-like alembic, a concave roof and annular rim-collection, connected by a tube with the receiver. This undoubtedly led to the achievement of a much higher degree of purity in the distilled alcohol than under any other device. There is a possibility, that, travelling through the Islamic world, the new stills would have soon reached India. The fresh wave of alcohol extraction, then, which India seems to have witnessed by stills now received. It is true that by this time there were alternative forms of stills also available, as Needham shows: these are what he calls the "Mongol still" (condensation in a catch-bowl within the still) and the "Chinese still" (with the catch-bowl connected by the side-tube with receiver outside), the former depicted on the wall of a cave of the period 1031-1227, and the latter shown in a drawing of 1163 in China (//Science and Civilisation//, V (4), pp. 62-68, 78-79). But neither of these devices could have probably competed successfully with the improved stills from the Mediterranean. The famous passage of //ca//. 1595 in the //A'in-I Akbari// of Abu'l Fazl, in which three kinds of liquor-stills are described, is examined by Needham (pp. 106-7). From Blochmann's translation he identifies the three kinds respectively as the Mongol, the Chinese and the Hellenistic types. Habib asserts that while one may let pass the identification of the first still as "Mongol", the second is clearly Gandharan. Abu'l Fazl expressly states that the condenser was the receiver itself placed in cold water. The third, which Needham identifies as "Hellenistic" is still more interesting, since it clearly has the Moore's head (water at the top and still-head shaped like a "spoon", so expressly described). It was, in other words, the medieval Italian-Arab still. Needham observes that it was the Gandharan still, which some time between the seventh and twelfth centuries, was recognized as more practical than the Mongol and Chinese types and "adopted accordingly" (Pp. 265-268). It may be mentioned here that the early invention of distillation must have helped production of pure zinc by distillation. India was the first in designing retorts, which could control distillation of such a volatile metal as zinc. In fact, for the medieval times zinc production reached industrial scale levels. //Pharmaceuticals//: Medicines were chiefly derived from plants, although a few ingredients originated from animals. Preparations of medicines involved collection of the ingredients, their purification, extraction of their essences and compounding of these extracts by means of processes like grinding, pasting and maceration. Processes like dissolution, distillation, sublimation, precipitation, combustion, dilution and decocting were carried out in these preparations. Mercury and gold were also used in a number of drugs. //Saltpetre and Gunpowder//: The discovery of saltpetre (i.e. potassium nitrate) and its chief application in gunpowder was a crucial factor in the history of chemistry. Firearms were mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts like //Rgveda, Atharvaveda, Kautiliya's Arthasastra// and //Manusmrti//. A verse in the Sanskrit alchemical text //Rasopanishada// narrated the preparations of a gunpowder mixture. Tamil texts also describe the preparation of fireworks using sulphur, charcoal, saltpetre, mercury, arsenic, camphor etc. Sukracarya's //Sukra-Nitisara//, written in the sixteenth century AD, mentions gun and gunpowder. It also gave a recipe for a gunpowder mixture consisting of saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal in specific proportions.
 * 1) //Dasanapasani Sura//: used in dyeing operations
 * 2) //Sarvacarani Sura//: used in mixing operations of all kinds
 * 3) //Dravani Sura//: used in dissolving substances
 * 4) //Ranjani Sura//: used in dyeing operations
 * 5) //Rasabandhani Sura//: used in binding mercury
 * 6) //Rasampatani Sura//: used in distillation of mercury

4. Medieval Alchemy (AD 800-1300)
Alchemy in India flourished in the medieval period. The Indian alchemy had two characteristic streams: gold making and elixir synthesis. The two faces of the alchemical practice, the metallurgical and the physico-religious, were superimposed to get a single picture wherein mercury and its elixirs were used in the so called transmutation of the base metals into noble ones, as well as for internal administration for purifying the body, rejuvenating it and taking it to an imperishable and immortal state.

Numerous alchemical texts were written between the ninth and the fourteenth centuries AD. Some texts are such that the alchemical ideas form only a part of them, while some other texts are wholly devoted to alchemy. Those that come under the second category include the following: Besides, there are several works whose authorship and dates have not yet been established. Among them may be mentioned //Dhatukalpa, Dhatumanjari, Dhatumaranam, Rasagrantha, Rasakalpalata, Rasanibhandha, Suvaranatantra, Tamrakalpa, Abhrakakalpa, Paradakalpa, Jaranamaranadi, Sutapradipa// etc. These texts are either fragments of major texts or generally based on them. Practitioners of the Siddha system of medicine wrote a number of alchemical texts known as Mappu texts in the Tamil language. The more prominent Siddhas were Agastyar, Bogar, Ramdevar and Karuvurar. There were alchemical texts written in other Indian languages as well, for example, in Hindi, Telugu, Kannada, Marathi, Bengali and Oriya. //Importance of Mercury//: The texts of Indian alchemy (//rasavidya//) reveal that a wide variety of inorganic and organic substances were used and plant as well as animal products, but more of the former. The important minerals are generally referred to as //rasas// and, in later texts they are classified into //maha// (superior) and //upa// (subsidiary) //rasas//. Mercury, though a metal, is extolled as the king of //rasas//, the //maharas//, and has several names in the //rasasastra// texts: //parada, sita, rasendra, svarnakaraka// (maker of gold), //sarvadhatupati// and, more significantly in a mythological setting, //Sivaja// (born of Siva); //Siva virya// (semen of Siva) and //Harabija// (seed of Siva). More than two hundred names of plants have been mentioned in the texts, but many of them have not been properly identified from the point of view of modern botanical nomenclature. Generally their roots, leaves or seeds are used for aiding digestion processes. As for the animal products, their excreta, flesh or some other parts of their bodies were diligently processed and used. The texts written in the medieval period primarily dealt with gold-making and elixir syntheses. Elixir or //Rasayana// was a substance that could transform other base metals in to gold and silver, as well as confer longevity and immortality when taken internally. If an elixir proved successful in transmutation of metals it was supposed to be safe for internal administration as well. Owing to its heavy weight, silvery white and shiny appearance, fluidity, and its property of readily combining with other substances, mercury was considered as the most potent of all substances and as possessing divine properties. The potions containing mercury were supposed to give longevity and immortality, thus making it the main ingredient of the powders used in the transmutation and as elixirs. Mercury had to undergo 18 processes before it could be used for transforming either metals or human body. These processes were as follows: These were known as the //samaskaras//. Briefly the processes are as follows: Svedana consists in streaming mercury with a number of vegetables and mineral substances; //mardana// involves rubbing the streamed mercury in a mortar with vegetable and acidic substances to remove some more impurities; in //murchanam// mercury is rubbed in a mortar with another set of vegetable substances, till it loses its own character and form; in //utthapana// the mercury is steamed again in alkalis, salts, the three myrobalans, alum, etc.; //patana// involves distillation (3 types: //urdhva, adah// and //tiyak//); //rodhana// involves mixing the distilled mercury with saline water in a closed pot; in niyamana the process is continued by streaming mercury for 3 days with a number of plant products, alum borax, etc.; //sandipana// involves steaming with alum, black pepper, sour gruel, some alkalis and some plant substances; //ganganagrasa// involves fixation of the desired degree of the essence of mica for its consumption; in //carana// mercury is boiled with sour gruel and leaves of some kinds of cereal plants, alum etc.; //garbhardrti// involves treating mercury with other metallic substances; in bahyadrti the essences of the minerals or metallic substances are utilized in the molten or liquid state; //jarana// involves heating mercury with the desired minerals or metals, alkalis and salts; //ranjana// involves colouring by a complex process; in //sarana// mercury is digested with gold, silver etc. in an oil base; //kramana// requires smearing mercury with a number of plant extracts, mineral substances, human milk etc. and then heating them ; //vedhana// consists in rubbing the treated mercury with oil and a few other materials so that it acquires the power of transmutation; and finally //sarayoga// it is available for internal use. //Nagarjuna and Rasarnava// The earliest available alchemical text in Sanskrit, //Rasaratnakara// by Nagarjuna was probably part of a larger text //Rasendramangala// written by the same author. Nagarjuna was the most prominent scholar in the field of Indian alchemy. There appeared a number of alchemical treatises in the eleventh to twelfth century AD namely, //Rasarnava, Rasahrdaya, Rasarnavakalpa// etc. Among them, //Rasopanisad// and //Rasarnava// were the largest consisting of about 2600 verses.
 * 1) //Rasahrdayatantra// by Govind Bhagwatpad
 * 2) //Srasaratnakara// by Siddha Nityanatha
 * 3) //Rasarnava// by an unknown author
 * 4) //Srasendracudamani// by Somadeva
 * 5) //Rasaratnasamuccaya// by Vagbhatta
 * 6) //Rasaprakasasudhakara// by Yasodhara
 * 7) //Rasarajalaksmi// by Ramesvara Bhatta
 * 8) //Rasendracintamani// by Dhundukanatha
 * 9) //Rasendracintamani// by Ramacandra Guha
 * 10) //Rasasara// by Govind Acarya
 * 11) //Rasakaumudi// by Sarvajnacandra
 * 12) //Rasabhesajakalpa// by Surya Pandita
 * 13) //Rasasamketakalika// by Camunda
 * 14) //Lohapaddhati// by Suresvara
 * 15) //Kankaligrantha// by Nasirshah
 * 16) //Rasamuktavalina// by Devanatha
 * 1) //Svedana//: steaming or heating using water bath
 * 2) //Mardana//: grinding
 * 3) //Murchana//: swooning or making mercury lose its form
 * 4) //Utthapana//: revival of form
 * 5) //Patana//: sublimation or distillation
 * 6) //Rodhana//: potentiation
 * 7) //Niyamana//: restraining
 * 8) //Sandipana//: stimulation or kindling
 * 9) //Gaganabhaksana//: consumption of essence of mica
 * 10) //Carana//: amalgamation
 * 11) //Garbhadruti//: liquefaction (internal)
 * 12) //Bahyadruti//: liquefaction (external)
 * 13) //Jarana//: calcinations
 * 14) //Ranjana//: dyeing
 * 15) //Sarana//: blending for transformation
 * 16) //Sankramana//: acquiring power of transformation or penetration
 * 17) //Vedhana//: transmutation
 * 18) //Sevana//: becoming fit for internal use

5. Modern Chemistry
Chemistry developed mainly in the form of alchemy and iatrochemistry during AD 1300-1600. But from the early seventeenth century onward a marked decline in the alchemical writings was observed. Alchemy that was practised with full enthusiasm started to fade from the beginning of the Tantric period. This was possibly on account of the realization that alchemy could not deliver the goods it promised. Now it was a period of the ascendance of iatrochemistry. After the decline of alchemy, iatrochemistry probably reached a steady state over the next 150-200 years, but then it too, declined due to the introduction and practice of western medicine in the 20th century. During this period of stagnation, the pharmaceutical industry based on Ayurveda continued to exist, but it too gradually declined. There was a large time gap between the giving up of old methods of production of certain chemicals and the adoption of newer methods based on modern chemical ideas. When the old ones become out fashioned, it took about 100-150 years for the Indians to learn and adopt new techniques and during this time the foreign products poured in. As a result the indigenous units using traditional techniques gradually declined, due to the adverse policies of the rulers. Decline in demand was the other main reason for this. The Indian dyes were superior in quality and low priced and brought a large return to the Europeans trading companies. Therefore, the East India Company till the beginning of the nineteenth century supported the indigo plantation. But, when Huemann discovered synthetic indigo in 1890, the indigo cultivation in India suffered and finally stopped. Thus the synthetic dyes completely overtook the natural dyes. Modern science appeared late on the Indian scene, i.e., only in the later part of the nineteenth century. By the mid nineteenth century European scientists started coming to India. A science college was established in Calcutta in 1814. The study of chemistry was first introduced in the Presidency College of Calcutta in 1872, followed by post-graduate teaching in chemistry in 1886. The Indian Association For Cultivation Of Sciences was established in 1876. Early chemists like P.C.Ray and Chuni Lal Bose were actively associated with it. P.C.Ray was well aware and proud of the fact that Indians had made considerable progress in the field of chemistry during the ancient and medieval periods, as was evident from his two volumes on //History of Hindu Chemistry//. After Ray, Chandra Bhusan Bhaduri and Jyoti Bhusan Bhaduri were the ones who conducted significant researches in the field of inorganic chemistry. R.D. Phookan sowed seeds of research in physical chemistry. Thus a bunch of young scientists started taking keen interest in modern scientific research activities. P.C.Ray established the Bengal Chemical Of Pharmaceutical Works Ltd. in Calcutta; J.K.Gajjar with the help of Kotibhaskar and Amin established the Alembic Chemical Works in 1905 at Baroda; and Vakil in 1937 established the alkali industry under Tata's patronage and Tata Chemicals Ltd. came into existence. The Indian chemical industry was thus established and it continued to grow with a slow but a steady pace in the 20th century. It is interesting to note that the western world is now veering around to the alternative medicines, based on traditional Indian recipes and iatrochemistry, so much so that the global annual trade in herbal products has reached $60 billion.

Main Sources:
Subbarayappa, B.V. 1999. Indian Alchemy: its Origin and Ramifications. In //Chemistry and Chemical Techniques in India// (Ed.) Subbarayappa, B.V., Delhi: Centre for Studies in Civilisations. Deshpande, Vijaya Jayant. 1998. History of Chemistry and Alchemy in India from Pre-historic to Pre- Modern Times. In //History of Indian Science and Technology an Culture AD 1000-1800// (Ed) A. Rahman. Delhi: Oxford.

Other References:
Habib, Irfan. 2000. Joseph Needham and The History of Indian Technology. //Indian Journal of History of Science// 35(3): 245-274. Needham, Joseph. //Science and Civilisation in China//. Vols. IV (2), V(4). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (Especially pages 85-6,97,104-7 and 131-2). Ray, P.C. 1909. //History of Hindu Chemistry//. Vols. I & II. London: Williams and Norgate. //D.P. Agrawal Lok Vigyan Kendra Almora 263601//

alchemy
In the narrow sense of the word, alchemy is the pretended art of making gold and silver, or transmuting the base metals into the noble ones. The idea of such transmutation probably arose among the Alexandrian Greeks in the early centuries of the Christian era; thence it passed to the Arabs, by whom it was transmitted to western Europe, and its realization was a leading aim of chemical workers down to the time of Paracelsus and even later. But "alchemy" was something more than a particularly vain and deluded manifestation of the thirst for gold, as it is sometimes represented; in its wider and truer significance it stands for the chemistry of the middle ages. The idea of transmutation, in the country of its origin, had a philosophical basis, and was linked up with the Greek theories of matter there current; thus, by supplying a central philosophical principle, it to some extent unified and focussed chemical effort, which previously, so far as it existed at all, had been expended on acquiring empirical acquaintance with a mass of disconnected technical processes. Alchemy in this sense is merely an early phase of the development of systematic chemistry; in Liebig's words, it was "never at any time anything different from chemistry." Regarding the derivation of the word, there are two main views which agree in holding that it has an Arabic descent, the prefix al being the Arabic article. But according to one, the second part of the word comes from the Greek chumeia, pouring, infusion, used in connexion with the study of the juices of plants, and thence extended to chemical manipulations in general; this derivation accounts for the old-fashioned spellings "chymist" and "chymistry." The other view traces it to khem or khame, hieroglyph khmi, which denotes black earth as opposed to barren sand, and occurs in Plutarch as chumeia; on this derivation alchemy is explained as meaning the "Egyptian art." The first occurrence of the word is said to be in a treatise of Julius Firmicus, an astrological writer of the 4th century, but the prefix al there must be the addition of a later copyist. Among the Alexandrian writers alchemy was designated as e tes chrusou te kai argurou poieseos techne theia kai iera or e episteme iera. In English, Piers Plowman (1362) contains the phrase "experimentis of alconomye," with variants "alkenemye" and "alknamye." The prefix al begins to be dropped about the middle of the 16th century.

​ origins of alchemy.
Numerous legends cluster round the origin of alchemy. According to one story, it was founded by the Egyptian god Hermes (Thoth), the reputed inventor of the arts and sciences, to whom, under the appellation Hermes Trismegistus, Tertullian refers as the master of those who occupy themselves with nature; after him later alchemists called their work the "hermetic art," and the seal of Hermes, which they placed upon their vessels, is the origin of the common phrase "hermetically sealed." Another legend, given by Zosimus of Panopolis, an alchemistical writer said to date from the 3rd century, asserts that the fallen angels taught the arts to the women they married (cf. Genesis vi. 2), their instruction being recorded in a book called Chema. A similar story appears in the Book of Enoch, and Tertullian has much to say about the wicked angels who revealed to men the knowledge of gold and silver, of lustrous stones, and of the power of herbs, and who introduced the arts of astrology and magic upon the earth. Again, the Arabic Kitab-al-Fihrist, written by al-Nadim towards the end of the 10th century, says that the "people who practise alchemy, that is, who fabricate gold and silver from strange metals, state that the first to speak of the science of the work was Hermes the Wise, who was originally of Babylon, but who established himself in Egypt after the dispersion of the peoples from Babel." Another legend, also to be found in Arabic sources, asserts that alchemy was revealed by God to Moses and Aaron. But there is some evidence that, in accordance with the strong and constant tradition among the alchemists, the idea of transmutation did originate in Egypt with the Greeks of Alexandria. In the Leiden museum there are a number of papyri which were found in a tomb at Thebes, written probably in the 3rd century A.D., though their matter is older. Some are in Greek and demotic, and one, of peculiar interest from the chemical point of view, gives a number of receipts, in Greek, for the manipulation of base metals to form alloys which simulate gold and are intended to be used in the manufacture of imitation jewellery.

taken from http://historymedren.about.com/od/aentries/a/11_alchemy.htm fire discover the alchemy symbols

elixir of youth ​

Abstract
EPMA analyses and K-Ar age determinations were carried out on phengite in pelitic schist from the Sanbagawa metamorphic belt of the Kanto Mountains, Central Japan. Phengite from the Sanbagawa pelitic schist in the Kanto Mountains generally occurs as aggregates of fine-grained crystals. It is extremely fine-grained in domains adjacent to relatively rigid garnet and albite porphyroblasts. This suggests that deformation-induced grain-size reduction took place in phengite during the ductile deformation accompanying the exhumation of the host schists. EPMA analysis shows that phengite is chemically heterogeneous at the thin-section scale, suggesting that it formed during retrograde metamorphism in restricted equilibrium domains. The retrograde chemical reaction was promoted by the ductile deformation. K-Ar ages of phengite get younger from the Southern Unit (82 Ma) to the Northern Unit (58 Ma) in the Kanto Mountains. The age range is similar to that in Central Shikoku. The older schists occur in the higher metamorphic grade zone in Central Shikoku and in the lower-grade zone in the Kanto Mountains. The thermal structures in Central Shikoku are inverted, so that the highest-grade zone occurs in the upper or middle parts of the apparent stratigraphic succession. In contrast, the Kanto Mountains have a normal thermal structure: the higher-grade zone is in the lower part of the apparent stratigraphic succession. The different tectonic features in exhumation produced the two contrasting age-temperature-structure relations at the western side of Sanbagawa belt in Central Shikoku and the eastern end of the Sanbagawa belt in the Kanto Mountains that are 800 km distant from each other. Namely, the western Sanbagawa belt in Central Shikoku underwent longer ductile deformation during the exhumation than the eastern Sanbagawa belt in t​he Kanto Mountains. taken from:http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ from [|Arabic] : كيمياء [|Latinized] : chem kēme, meaning "value" is the [|science] of [|matter] and the changes it undergoes. The science of matter is also addressed by [|physics], but while physics takes a more general and fundamental approach, chemistry is more specialized, being concerned with the composition, behavior, structure, and properties of [|matter] , as well as the changes it undergoes during [|chemical reactions]. It is a [|physical science] for studies of various [|atoms], [|molecules] , [|crystals] and other aggregates of matter whether in isolation or combination, which incorporates the concepts of [|energy] and [|entropy] in relation to the [|spontaneity] of [|chemical processes]. Disciplines within chemistry are traditionally grouped by the type of matter being studied or the kind of study. These include [|inorganic chemistry], the study of [|inorganic] matter; [|organic chemistry] , the study of [|organic] matter; [|biochemistry] , the study of [|substances] found in [|biological organisms] ; [|physical chemistry] , the [|energy] related studies of chemical systems at macro, molecular and submolecular scales; [|analytical chemistry] , the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their [|chemical composition] and [|structure]. Many more specialized disciplines have emerged in recent years, e.g. [|neurochemistry] the chemical study of the [|nervous system] see [|subdisciplines].
 * Chemistry **