2.0+THE+MATTER

Physical properties of matter are categorized as either Intensive or Extensive: >>> >>> ​​​​ >>> >>> >>> matter >>> Material substance that constitutes the observable universe and, together with energy, forms the basis of all objective phenomena. Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter. Every physical entity can be described, physically and mathematically, in terms of interrelated quantities of mass, inertia , and gravitation. Matter in bulk occurs in several states; the most familiar are the gaseous (//see// gas ), liquid, and solid states ( plasmas , glasses , and various others are less clearly defined), each with characteristic properties. According to Albert Einstein 's special theory of relativity, matter and energy are equivalent and interconvertible (//see// conservation law ). >>> **R**
 * **__Intensive__** - Properties that do not depend on the amount of the matter present.
 * **Color**
 * **Odor**
 * **Luster** - How shiny a substance is.
 * **Malleability** - The ability of a substance to be beaten into thin sheets.
 * **Ductility** - The ability of a substance to be drawn into thin wires.
 * **Conductivity** - The ability of a substance to allow the flow of energy or electricity.
 * **Hardness** - How easily a substance can be scratched.
 * **Melting/Freezing Point** - The temperature at which the solid and liquid phases of a substance are in equilibrium at atmospheric pressure.
 * **Boiling Point** - The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid is equal to the pressure on the liquid (generally atmospheric pressure).
 * **Density** - The mass of a substance divided by its volume
 * **__Extensive__** - Properties that do depend on the amount of matter present.
 * **Mass** - A measurement of the amount of matter in a object (grams).
 * **Weight** - A measurement of the gravitational force of attraction of the earth acting on an object.
 * **Volume** - A measurement of the amount of space a substance occupies.
 * **Length**
 * 1) Something that occupies space and can be perceived by one or more senses; a physical body, a physical substance, or the universe as a whole.
 * 2) //Physics//. Something that has mass and exists as a solid, liquid, gas, or plasma.
 * 3) A specific type of substance: //inorganic matter.//
 * 4) Discharge or waste, such as pus or feces, from a living organism.
 * 5) //Philosophy//. In Aristotelian and Scholastic use, that which is in itself undifferentiated and formless and which, as the subject of change and development, receives form and becomes substance.

Common definition
The DNA molecule is an example of //matter// under the "atoms and molecules" definition. The common definition of matter is //anything that has both mass and volume (occupies space)//.[25][26] For example, a car would be said to be made of matter, as it occupies space, and has mass. The observation that matter occupies space goes back to antiquity. However, an explanation for why matter occupies space is recent, and is argued to be a result of the Pauli exclusion principle.[27][28] Two particular examples where the exclusion principle clearly relates matter to the occupation of space are white dwarf stars and neutron stars, discussed further below.

Amount of substance
The international standards organization //Bureau International des Poids et Mesures// (BIPM) uses the terminology "amount of substance", rather than "matter". To quote the SI brochure:[29]

"Amount of substance is defined to be proportional to the number of specified elementary entities in a sample, the proportionality constant being a universal constant which is the same for all samples. The unit of amount of substance is called the mole, symbol mol, and the mole is defined by specifying the mass of carbon 12 that constitutes one mole of carbon 12 atoms. By international agreement this was fixed at 0.012 kg, i.e. 12 g.
 * 1. The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12; its symbol is "mol".
 * 2. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules,
 * ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles."

plasma Plasma is a fourth state of matter consisting of an overall charge-neutral mix of electrons, ions and neutral atoms.[|[55]] The plasma exhibits behavior peculiar to long range Coulomb forces in which the particles move in electromagnetic fields generated by and self-consistent with their own motions. The sun and stars are plasmas, as is the Earth's ionosphere, and plasmas occur in neon signs. Plasmas of deuterium and tritium ions are used in fusion reactions.[|[56]] The term //plasma// was applied for the first time by Tonks and Langmuirin 1929, to the inner regions of a glowing ionized gas produced by electric discharge in a tube. [|[57]]

gas A gas is a state of aggregation without cohesion; a vapor. Thus a gas has no resistance to changing shape (beyond the inertia of its constituents, which have to be knocked aside). The distance between constituent particles is flexible, determined, for example, by the size of a container and the number of particles, not by internal forces. A common example is the vapor form of water, //steam//.

liquid In a liquid, the constituents frequently are touching, but able to move around each other. So unlike a gas, it has cohesion and viscosity . Compared to a solid, the forces holding constituents together are weaker, and it is not rigid, but adapts a shape decided by its container. Liquids are hard to compress. A common example is //water// .

solid Solids are characterized by a tendency to retain their structural integrity; if left on their own, they will not spread in the same way gas or liquids would. Many solids, like rocks and concrete, have very high hardness and rigidity and will tend to break or shatter when subject to various forms of stress, but others like steel and paper are more flexible and will bend. Solids are often composed of crystals, glasses, or long chain molecules (e.g. rubber and paper). Some solids are amorphous such as glass. .

Matter is a term that traditionally refers to the substance that all objects are made of,[1][2] though Aristotelian hylomorphism holds that matter is not necessarily a material category. The common way to identify this "substance" is through its physical properties; a common definition of //matter// is anything that has mass and occupies a volume.[3] However, this definition has to be revised in light of quantum mechanics, where the concept of "having mass", and "occupying space" are not as well-defined as in everyday life. A more general view is that bodies are made of //several// substances, and the properties of matter (including mass and volume) are determined not only by the substances themselves, but by how they interact. In other words, matter is made up of interacting "building blocks",[4][5] the so-called //particulate theory of matter//.[6] The concept of matter has been refined many times in history, in light of the improvement in knowledge of just //what// the basic building blocks are, and in how they interact. For example, in the early 18th century, Isaac Newton viewed matter as "solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, movable particles", which were "even so very hard as never to wear or break in pieces."[7] The "primary" properties of matter were amenable to mathematical description, unlike "secondary" qualities such as color or taste.[7] In the 19th century, following the development of the periodic table, and of atomic theory, atoms were seen as being the fundamental constituents of matter; atoms formed molecules and compounds.[8] In the late 19th century with the discovery of the electron, and in the early 20th century, with the discovery of the atomic nucleus, and the birth of particle physics, matter was seen as made up of electrons, protons and neutrons interacting to form atoms. Today, we know that even protons and neutrons are not indivisible, they can be divided into quarks, while electrons are part of a particle family called leptons. Both quarks and leptons are elementary particles, and are currently seen as being the fundamental constituents of matter.[9] These quarks and leptons interact through four fundamental forces: gravity, electromagnetism, weak interactions, and strong interactions. The Standard Model of particle physics is currently the best explanation for all of physics, but despite decades of efforts, gravity cannot yet be accounted for at the quantum-level; it is only described by classical physics (see quantum gravity and graviton).[10] Interactions between quarks and leptons are the result of an exchange of force-carrying particles (such as photons) between quarks and leptons.[11] The force-carrying particles are not themselves building blocks. As one consequence, mass and energy (which cannot be created or destroyed) cannot always be related to matter (which can be created out of non-matter particles such as photons, or even out of pure energy, such as kinetic energy). Force carriers are usually not considered matter: the carriers of the electric force (photons) possess energy (see Planck relation) and the carriers of the weak force (W and Z bosons) are massive, but neither are considered matter either.[12] However, while these particles are not considered matter, they do contribute to the total mass of atoms, subatomic particles, and all systems which contain them.[13][14] Matter is commonly said to exist in four //states// (or //phases//): solid, liquid, gas and plasma. However, advances in experimental technique have realized other phases, previously only theoretical constructs, such as Bose–Einstein condensates and Fermionic condensates. A focus on an elementary-particle view of matter also leads to new phases of matter, such as the quark–gluon plasma.[15] In physics and chemistry, matter exhibits both wave-like and particle-like properties, the so-called wave–particle duality.[16][17][18] In the realm of cosmology, extensions of the term //matter// are invoked to include dark matter and dark energy, concepts introduced to explain some odd phenomena of the observable universe, such as the galactic rotation curve. These exotic forms of "matter" do not refer to matter as "building blocks", but rather to currently poorly-understood forms of mass and energy. taken from []

Matter is anything that has mass. All objects are made of matter. Air, water, a brick, even you are made of matter! Matter is made up of smaller pieces. Over eighty years ago, scientists thought that the atom was the smallest piece of matter. At that time, the atom was thought to be Ôthe building block of matter.Õ In 1911, a scientist named Ernest Rutherford discovered that atoms are really made of a positively charged center called the nucleus orbited by negatively charged particles called

In 1932, scientists discovered that the nucleus of an atom is made of smaller particles called protons and neutrons. Protons carry a positive charge while neutrons have no charge at all. Protons and neutrons are each called nucleons since they are found in the nucleus. When they were discovered, scientists thought they were the smallest piece of matter.

taken from []





=Matter is the Stuff Around You=

Changing States of Matter [|Elements] and compounds can move from one [|physical state] to another and not change. Oxygen (O2) as a gas still has the same properties as liquid oxygen. The [|liquid] state is colder and denser but the molecules are still the same. Water is another example. The **compound** water is made up of two hydrogen (H) atoms and one oxygen (O) atom. It has the same molecular structure whether it is a [|gas], liquid, or [|solid]. Although its physical state may change, its chemical state remains the same.

So you ask, "What is a chemical state?" If the formula of water were to change, that would be a **chemical change**. If you added another oxygen atom, you would make hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Its molecules would not be water anymore. Changing states of matter is about changing densities, pressures, temperatures, and other physical properties. The basic chemical structure does not change.

taking from []

Atoms from Democritus to Dalton
//by Anthony Carpi, Ph.D.//
 * Early humans easily distinguished between materials that were used for making clothes, shaping into tools, or good to eat, and they developed a language of words to describe these things, such as “fur,” “stone,” or “rabbit.” However, these people did not have our current understanding of the substances that made up those objects. Empedocles, a Greek philosopher and scientist who lived on the south coast of Sicily between 492 b.c. and 432 b.c., proposed one of the first theories that attempted to describe the things around us. Empedocles argued that all matter was composed of four elements: fire, air, water, and earth. The ratio of these four elements affected the properties of the matter. Stone was thought to contain a high amount of earth, while a rabbit was thought to have a higher ratio of both water and fire, thus making it soft and giving it life. Empedocles’s theory was quite popular, but it had a number of problems. For example, no matter how many times you break a stone in half, the pieces never resemble any of the core elements of fire, air, water, or earth. Despite these problems, Empedocles’s theory was an important development in scientific thinking because it was among the first to suggest that some substances that looked like pure materials, like stone, were actually made up of a combination of different "elements." ||

A few decades after Empedocles, Democritus, another Greek who lived from 460 b.c. to 370 b.c., developed a new theory of matter that attempted to overcome the problems of his predecessor. Democritus’s ideas were based on reasoning rather than science, and drew on the teachings of two Greek philosophers who came before him: Leucippus and Anaxagoras. Democritus knew that if you took a stone and cut it in half, each half had the same properties as the original stone. He reasoned that if you continued to cut the stone into smaller and smaller pieces, at some point you would reach a piece so tiny that it could no longer be divided. Democritus called these infinitesimally small pieces of matter //atomos//, meaning "indivisible." He suggested that //atomos// were eternal and could not be destroyed. Democritus theorized that //atomos// were specific to the material that they made up, meaning that the //atomos// of stone were unique to stone and different from the atomos of other materials, such as fur. This was a remarkable theory that attempted to explain the whole physical world in terms of a small number of ideas.

Ultimately, though, Aristotle and Plato, two of the best-known philosophers of Ancient Greece, rejected the theories of Democritus. Aristotle accepted the theory of Empedocles, adding his own (incorrect) idea that the four core elements could be transformed into one another. Because of Aristotle’s great influence, Democritus’s theory would have to wait almost 2,000 years before being rediscovered. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries a.d., several key events helped revive the theory that matter was made of small, indivisible particles. In 1643, Evangelista Torricelli, an Italian mathematician and pupil of Galileo, showed that air had weight and was capable of pushing down on a column of liquid mercury (thus inventing the barometer). This was a startling finding. If air - this substance that we could not see, feel, or smell - had weight, it must be made of something physical. But how could something have a physical presence, yet not respond to human touch or sight? Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss mathematician, proposed an answer. He developed a theory that air and other gases consist of tiny particles that are too small to be seen, and are loosely packed in an empty volume of space. The particles could not be felt because unlike a solid stone wall that does not move, the tiny particles move aside when a human hand or body moves through them. Bernoulli reasoned that if these particles were not in constant motion they would settle to the ground like dust particles; therefore he pictured air and other gases as loose collections of tiny billiard-ball-like particles that are continuously moving around and bouncing off one another. Priestley called the gas he discovered dephlogisticated air, but this name would not stick. In 1778, Antoine Lavoisier, a French scientist, conducted many experiments with dephlogisticated air and theorized that the gas made some substances acidic. He renamed Priestley’s gas //oxygen//, from the Greek words that loosely translate as "acid maker". While Lavoisier’s theory about oxygen and acids proved incorrect, his name stuck. Lavoisier knew from other scientists before him that acids react with some metals to release another strange and highly flammable gas called phlogiston. Lavoisier mixed the two gases, phlogiston and the newly renamed oxygen, in a closed glass container and inserted a match. He saw that phlogiston immediately burned in the presence of oxygen and afterwards he observed droplets of water on the glass container. After careful testing, Lavoisier realized that the water was formed by the reaction of phlogiston and oxygen, and so he renamed phlogiston //hydrogen//, from the Greek words for "water maker". Lavoisier also burned other substances such as phosphorus and sulfur in air, and showed that they combined with air to make new materials. These new materials weighed more than the original substances, and Lavoisier showed that the weight gained by the new materials was lost from the air in which the substances were burned. From these observations, Lavoisier established the Law of **Conservation of Mass**, which says that mass is not lost or gained during a chemical reaction.
 * [[image:/library/modules/mid49/Image/VLObject-3085-050602020655.jpg width="145" height="149" align="right" caption="cinnabar - 3D"]] Many scientists were busy studying the natural world at this time. Shortly after Bernoulli proposed his theory, the Englishman Joseph Priestley began to experiment with red mercury calx in 1773. Mercury calx, a red solid stone, had been known and coveted for thousands of years because when it is heated, it appears to turn into mercury, a silver liquid metal. Priestley had observed that it does not just turn into mercury; it actually breaks down into two substances when it is heated, liquid mercury and a strange gas. Priestley carefully collected this gas in glass jars and studied it. After many long days and nights in the laboratory, Priestley said of the strange gas, “what surprised me more than I can well express was that a candle burned in this air with a remarkably vigorous flame.” Not only did flames burn strongly in this gas, but a mouse placed in a sealed container of this gas lived for a longer period of time than a mouse placed in a sealed container of ordinary air. Priestley’s discovery revealed that substances could combine together or break apart to form new substances with different properties. For example, a colorless, odorless gas could combine with mercury, a silver metal, to form mercury calx, a red mineral. ||


 * || [[image:/library/modules/mid49/Image/VLObject-3070-041201041235.jpg caption="priestleys apparatus - An eighteenth-century chemistry bench."]] ||  ||
 * An eighteenth-century chemistry bench. ||

Priestley, Lavoisier, and others had laid the foundations of the field of chemistry. Their experiments showed that some substances could combine with others to form new materials; other substances could be broken apart to form simpler ones; and a few key “elements” could not be broken down any further. But what could explain this complex set of observations? John Dalton, an exceptional British teacher and scientist, put together the pieces and developed the first modern atomic theory in 1803. To learn more about Priestley's and Lavoisier's experiments and how they formed the basis of Dalton's theories, try the interactive experiment //Dalton's Playhouse//, linked to below. Dalton's Playhouse An interactive, virtual set of experiments that allow you to recreate classic experiments from the nineteenth century.

Dalton made it a regular habit to track and record the weather in his home town of Manchester, England. Through his observations of morning fog and other weather patterns, Dalton realized that water could exist as a gas that mixed with air and occupied the same space as air. Solids could not occupy the same space as each other; for example, ice could not mix with air. So what could allow water to sometimes behave as a solid and sometimes as a gas? Dalton realized that all matter must be composed of tiny particles. In the gas state, those particles floated freely around and could mix with other gases, as Bernoulli had proposed. But Dalton extended this idea to apply to all matter – gases, solids and liquids. Dalton first proposed part of his atomic theory in 1803 and later refined these concepts in his classic 1808 paper //A New System of Chemical Philosophy// (which you can access through a link in the right menu

taken from videolearning.com


 * ** Matter ** ​ ||


 * Everything there is can be divided into one of three groups: **


 * **//Solids//** ||  ||   ||   || [[image:solids1.jpg width="148" height="85" align="center"]] || A bar of gold is a solid. ||   ||   ||   || A solid has a definite shape and size, because its particles are tightly packed together. ||




 * **//Liquids//** ||  ||   ||   || [[image:liquid1.jpg width="72" height="113" align="center"]] || This drink is a liquid. ||   ||   ||   || A liquid has a definite size, but not a definite shape. The particles take on the shape of the container and are not so tightly packed. ||




 * **//Gases//** ||  ||   ||   || [[image:gas1.jpg width="101" height="124" align="center"]] || This gas is given off from the liquid. ||   ||   ||   || A gas does not have a definite shape nor a definite size. The particles take up as much space as is available to them and are loosely packed. ||



​ taken from: [|www.zephyrus.co.uk]





DEFINITION OFTHE MATTER ​ Matter has many definitions, but the most common is that it is any substance which has mass and occupies space. All physical objects are composed of matter, in the form of atoms, which are in turn composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Photons have no mass, so they are an example of something in physics is //not// comprised of matter. They are also not considered "objects" in the traditional sense, as they cannot exist in a stationary state.

Phases of Matter
Matter can exist in various phases: solid, liquid, gas, or plasma. Most substances can transition between these phases based on the amount of heat the material absorbs (or loses). //taken​// //from: http://physics.about.com/od/glossary/g/Matter.htm//

**Dirtmeister's Science Lab on Matter** || ||

There's matter in your hair. Matter in the air. There's even matter in a pear! There's liquid matter, solid matter, and matter that's a gas. Even you are matter, because you have volume and mass! Okay, so maybe I'm not a poet, but that's how I describe the "stuff" we call matter. In trying to make sense of the universe, scientists have classified everything that exists into two broad categories: matter and energy. Simply stated, matter can be thought of as "stuff" and energy is "the stuff that moves stuff." Now, if you take all the "stuff" in the world, you know that there are many different types. To further simplify things, matter has been broken down into three basic types, or "states of matter": solids, liquids, and gas. (Actually there are more than three, but we're going to concentrate on the main forms here.) Matter can change from one state to another, which we call a "physical change." Physical changes usually occur when heat (energy) is either added or taken away. A good example of a physical change is when an ice cube melts. It starts as a solid but when you add heat, it turns into a liquid. The cool thing about a physical change is that it can be reversed. If you take the liquid water from the melted ice and cool it down again (remove the heat), it turns back into a solid! It turns out that heat isn't the only type of energy that can cause a physical change in matter. In my [|Science Lab], you'll see what happens when mechanical energy meets some wild and wacky "mystery matter"! || www.teacher.scholastic.com
 * [[image:http://teacher.scholastic.com/network/common/spacer.gif width="1" height="1"]] || Matter, matter everywhere.



www.sciencepark.com



[]

Atoms from Democritus to Dalton
//by Anthony Carpi, Ph.D.// taken for:http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=49
 * Early humans easily distinguished between materials that were used for making clothes, shaping into tools, or good to eat, and they developed a language of words to describe these things, such as “fur,” “stone,” or “rabbit.” However, these people did not have our current understanding of the substances that made up those objects. Empedocles, a Greek philosopher and scientist who lived on the south coast of Sicily between 492 b.c. and 432 b.c., proposed one of the first theories that attempted to describe the things around us. Empedocles argued that all matter was composed of four elements: fire, air, water, and earth. The ratio of these four elements affected the properties of the matter. Stone was thought to contain a high amount of earth, while a rabbit was thought to have a higher ratio of both water and fire, thus making it soft and giving it life. Empedocles’s theory was quite popular, but it had a number of problems. For example, no matter how many times you break a stone in half, the pieces never resemble any of the core elements of fire, air, water, or earth. Despite these problems, Empedocles’s theory was an important development in scientific thinking because it was among the first to suggest that some substances that looked like pure materials, like stone, were actually made up of a combination of different "elements." ||



taken for:http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=49

who //is// MATTER? MATTER was set up as a non-profit consortium of UK materials science departments in 1993 to develop and help integrate computer-based learning (CBL) materials into mainstream teaching.

taken for:http://www.matter.org.uk/matter.htm

[|www.100pies.com]

[|www.100pies.com]

Atoms from Democritus to Dalton
//by Anthony Carpi, Ph.D.//
 * [[image:http://www.visionlearning.com/library/modules/mid127/Image/VLObject-3067-041202021201.jpg width="233" height="201" align="right" caption="elements of matter"]] Early humans easily distinguished between materials that were used for making clothes, shaping into tools, or good to eat, and they developed a language of words to describe these things, such as “fur,” “stone,” or “rabbit.” However, these people did not have our current understanding of the substances that made up those objects. [|Empedocles], a Greek philosopher and scientist who lived on the south coast of Sicily between 492 b.c. and 432 b.c., proposed one of the first theories that attempted to describe the things around us. Empedocles argued that all matter was composed of four elements: fire, air, water, and earth. The ratio of these four elements affected the properties of the matter. Stone was thought to contain a high amount of earth, while a rabbit was thought to have a higher ratio of both water and fire, thus making it soft and giving it life. Empedocles’s [|theory] was quite popular, but it had a number of problems. For example, no matter how many times you break a stone in half, the pieces never resemble any of the core elements of fire, air, water, or earth. Despite these problems, Empedocles’s theory was an important development in scientific thinking because it was among the first to suggest that some substances that looked like pure materials, like stone, were actually made up of a combination of different "elements." ||


 * || [[image:http://www.visionlearning.com/library/modules/mid49/Image/VLObject-3068-041201041218.jpg caption="chemical reaction - ancient"]] ||  ||

A few decades after [|Empedocles], [|Democritus], another Greek who lived from 460 b.c. to 370 b.c., developed a new [|theory] of matter that attempted to overcome the problems of his predecessor. Democritus’s ideas were based on reasoning rather than science, and drew on the teachings of two Greek philosophers who came before him: Leucippus and Anaxagoras. Democritus knew that if you took a stone and cut it in half, each half had the same properties as the original stone. He reasoned that if you continued to cut the stone into smaller and smaller pieces, at some point you would reach a piece so tiny that it could no longer be divided. Democritus called these infinitesimally small pieces of matter //atomos//, meaning "indivisible." He suggested that //atomos// were eternal and could not be destroyed. Democritus theorized that //atomos// were specific to the material that they made up, meaning that the //atomos// of stone were unique to stone and different from the atomos of other materials, such as fur. This was a remarkable theory that attempted to explain the whole physical world in terms of a small number of ideas. Ultimately, though, [|Aristotle] and Plato, two of the best-known philosophers of Ancient Greece, rejected the theories of [|Democritus]. Aristotle accepted the [|theory] of [|Empedocles], adding his own (incorrect) idea that the four core [|elements] could be transformed into one another. Because of Aristotle’s great influence, Democritus’s theory would have to wait almost 2,000 years before being rediscovered. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries a.d., several key events helped revive the [|theory] that matter was made of small, indivisible particles. In 1643, [|Evangelista Torricelli], an Italian mathematician and pupil of Galileo, showed that air had [|weight] and was capable of pushing down on a column of liquid mercury (thus inventing the barometer). This was a startling finding. If air - this substance that we could not see, feel, or smell - had weight, it must be made of something physical. But how could something have a physical presence, yet not respond to human touch or sight? [|Daniel Bernoulli], a Swiss mathematician, proposed an answer. He developed a theory that air and other gases consist of tiny particles that are too small to be seen, and are loosely packed in an empty volume of space. The particles could not be felt because unlike a solid stone wall that does not move, the tiny particles move aside when a human hand or body moves through them. Bernoulli reasoned that if these particles were not in constant motion they would settle to the ground like dust particles; therefore he pictured air and other gases as loose collections of tiny billiard-ball-like particles that are continuously moving around and bouncing off one another. Priestley called the gas he discovered dephlogisticated air, but this name would not stick. In 1778, [|Antoine Lavoisier], a French scientist, conducted many experiments with dephlogisticated air and theorized that the gas made some substances acidic. He renamed Priestley’s gas //oxygen//, from the Greek words that loosely translate as "acid maker". While Lavoisier’s [|theory] about oxygen and [|acids] proved incorrect, his name stuck. Lavoisier knew from other scientists before him that acids react with some metals to release another strange and highly flammable gas called phlogiston. Lavoisier mixed the two gases, phlogiston and the newly renamed oxygen, in a closed glass container and inserted a match. He saw that phlogiston immediately burned in the presence of oxygen and afterwards he observed droplets of water on the glass container. After careful testing, Lavoisier realized that the water was formed by the reaction of phlogiston and oxygen, and so he renamed phlogiston //hydrogen//, from the Greek words for "water maker". Lavoisier also burned other substances such as phosphorus and sulfur in air, and showed that they combined with air to make new materials. These new materials weighed more than the original substances, and Lavoisier showed that the [|weight] gained by the new materials was lost from the air in which the substances were burned. From these observations, Lavoisier established the Law of **Conservation of Mass**, which says that [|mass] is not lost or gained during a [|chemical reaction].
 * [[image:http://www.visionlearning.com/library/modules/mid127/Image/VLObject-3074-041202011213.jpg width="218" height="85" caption="stoneandatoms"]] || [[image:http://www.visionlearning.com/library/modules/mid127/Image/VLObject-3075-041202011213.jpg width="220" height="86" caption="furandatoms"]] ||
 * Stone || Fur ||
 * [[image:http://www.visionlearning.com/library/modules/mid49/Image/VLObject-3085-050602020655.jpg width="145" height="149" align="right" caption="cinnabar - 3D"]] Many scientists were busy studying the natural world at this time. Shortly after Bernoulli proposed his [|theory], the Englishman [|Joseph Priestley] began to experiment with red mercury calx in 1773. Mercury calx, a red solid stone, had been known and coveted for thousands of years because when it is heated, it appears to turn into mercury, a silver liquid metal. Priestley had observed that it does not just turn into mercury; it actually breaks down into two substances when it is heated, liquid mercury and a strange gas. Priestley carefully collected this gas in glass jars and studied it. After many long days and nights in the laboratory, Priestley said of the strange gas, “what surprised me more than I can well express was that a candle burned in this air with a remarkably vigorous flame.” Not only did flames burn strongly in this gas, but a mouse placed in a sealed container of this gas lived for a longer period of time than a mouse placed in a sealed container of ordinary air. Priestley’s discovery revealed that substances could combine together or break apart to form new substances with different properties. For example, a colorless, odorless gas could combine with mercury, a silver metal, to form mercury calx, a red [|mineral]. ||


 * || [[image:http://www.visionlearning.com/library/modules/mid49/Image/VLObject-3070-041201041235.jpg caption="priestleys apparatus - An eighteenth-century chemistry bench."]] ||  ||
 * An eighteenth-century chemistry bench. ||

Priestley, Lavoisier, and others had laid the foundations of the field of chemistry. Their experiments showed that some substances could combine with others to form new materials; other substances could be broken apart to form simpler ones; and a few key “elements” could not be broken down any further. But what could explain this complex set of observations? [|John Dalton], an exceptional British teacher and scientist, put together the pieces and developed the first modern atomic [|theory] in 1803. To learn more about Priestley's and Lavoisier's experiments and how they formed the basis of Dalton's theories, try the interactive experiment //Dalton's Playhouse//, linked to below. [|Dalton's Playhouse] An interactive, virtual set of experiments that allow you to recreate classic experiments from the nineteenth century.

Dalton made it a regular habit to track and record the weather in his home town of Manchester, England. Through his observations of morning fog and other weather patterns, Dalton realized that water could exist as a gas that mixed with air and occupied the same space as air. Solids could not occupy the same space as each other; for example, ice could not mix with air. So what could allow water to sometimes behave as a solid and sometimes as a gas? Dalton realized that all matter must be composed of tiny particles. In the gas state, those particles floated freely around and could mix with other gases, as Bernoulli had proposed. But Dalton extended this idea to apply to all matter – gases, solids and liquids. Dalton first proposed part of his atomic [|theory] in 1803 and later refined these concepts in his classic 1808 paper //A New [|System] of Chemical Philosophy// (which you can access through a link in the right menu).
 * [[image:http://www.visionlearning.com/library/modules/mid127/Image/VLObject-3071-041201051206.jpg width="136" height="250" caption="elements-dalton"]] || [[image:http://www.visionlearning.com/library/modules/mid127/Image/VLObject-3072-041201051207.jpg width="178" height="250" caption="elements-dalton 2"]] ||
 * Dalton's Elements ||

Dalton's [|theory] had four main concepts: Some of the details of Dalton’s atomic [|theory] require more explanation. The idea that compounds have defined chemical formulas was first proposed in the late 1700s by the French chemist [|Joseph Proust]. Proust performed a number of experiments and observed that no matter how he caused different elements to react with oxygen, they always reacted in defined proportions. For example, two parts of hydrogen always reacts with one part oxygen when forming water; one part mercury always reacts with one part oxygen when forming mercury calx. Dalton used Proust’s **Law of Definite Proportions** in developing his atomic [|theory].
 * 1) **All matter is composed of indivisible particles called [|atoms].** Bernoulli, Dalton, and others pictured atoms as tiny billiard-ball-like particles in various states of motion. While this concept is useful to help us understand atoms, it is not correct as we will see in later modules on atomic theory linked to at the bottom of this module.
 * 2) **All atoms of a given element are identical; atoms of different [|elements] have different properties.** Dalton’s theory suggested that every single atom of an element such as oxygen is identical to every other oxygen atom; furthermore, atoms of different elements, such as oxygen and mercury, are different from each other. Dalton characterized elements according to their atomic [|weight]; however, when [|isotopes] of elements were discovered in the late 1800s this concept changed.
 * 3) **Chemical reactions involve the combination of atoms, not the destruction of atoms.** Atoms are indestructible and unchangeable, so [|compounds], such as water and mercury calx, are formed when one atom chemically combines with other atoms. This was an extremely advanced concept for its time; while Dalton’s theory implied that atoms bonded together, it would be more than 100 years before scientists began to explain the concept of chemical bonding.
 * 4) **When elements react to form compounds, they react in defined, whole-number ratios.** The experiments that Dalton and others performed showed that reactions are not random events; they proceed according to precise and well-defined formulas. This important concept in chemistry is discussed in more detail below.
 * Elements:** As early as 1660, [|Robert Boyle] recognized that the Greek definition of element (earth, fire, air, and water) was not correct. Boyle proposed a new definition of an [|element] as a fundamental substance, and we now define elements as //fundamental substances that cannot be broken down further by chemical means//. Elements are the building blocks of the universe. They are pure substances that form the basis of all of the materials around us. Some elements can be seen in pure form, such as mercury in a thermometer; some we see mainly in chemical combination with others, such as oxygen and hydrogen in water. We now know of approximately 116 different elements. Each of the elements is given a name and a one- or two-letter abbreviation. Often this abbreviation is simply the first letter of the element; for example, hydrogen is abbreviated as H, and oxygen as O. Sometimes an element is given a two-letter abbreviation; for example, helium is He. When writing the abbreviation for an element, the first letter is always capitalized and the second letter (if there is one) is always lowercase.
 * Atoms:** A single unit of an [|element] is called an [|atom]. The atom is the most basic unit of the matter that makes up everything in the world around us. Each atom retains all of the chemical and physical properties of its parent element. At the end of the nineteenth century, scientists would show that atoms were actually made up of smaller, "subatomic" pieces, which smashed the billiard-ball concept of the atom (see our [|Atomic [[http://www.visionlearning.com/library/pop_glossary_term.php?oid=4854&l=|Theory] I: The Early Days]] module).
 * [[image:http://www.visionlearning.com/library/modules/mid127/Image/VLObject-3069-041201041229.jpg width="136" height="116" align="right" caption="water molecule-with hooks"]] **Compounds:** Most of the materials we come into contact with are compounds, substances formed by the chemical combination of two or more atoms of the elements. A single “particle” of a compound is called a **molecule**. Dalton incorrectly imagined that atoms “hooked” together to form molecules. However, Dalton correctly realized that compounds have precise formulas. Water, for example, is always made up of two parts hydrogen and one part oxygen. The chemical formula of a [|compound] is written by listing the symbols of the elements together, without any spaces between them. If a molecule contains more than one [|atom] of an element, a number is subscripted after the symbol to show the number of atoms of that element in the molecule. Thus the formula for water is H2O, never HO or H2O2. ||


 * || [[image:http://www.visionlearning.com/library/modules/mid49/Image/VLObject-3077-041202011227.jpg caption="balloon - definite proportions"]] ||  ||

The law also applies to multiples of the fundamental proportion, for example:


 * || [[image:http://www.visionlearning.com/library/modules/mid49/Image/VLObject-3078-041202011229.jpg caption="balloon - multiple proportions"]] ||  ||

In both of these examples, the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen to water is 2 to 1 to 1. When [|reactants] are present in excess of the fundamental proportions, some reactants will remain unchanged after the [|chemical reaction] has occurred.


 * || [[image:http://www.visionlearning.com/library/modules/mid49/Image/VLObject-3079-041202011236.jpg caption="balloon - excess reactant"]] ||  ||

The story of the development of modern atomic [|theory] is one in which scientists built upon the work of others to produce a more accurate explanation of the world around them. This process is common in science, and even incorrect theories can contribute to important scientific discoveries. Dalton, Priestley, and others laid the foundation of atomic theory, and many of their hypotheses are still useful. However, in the decades after their work, other scientists would show that [|atoms] are not solid billiard balls, but complex [|systems] of particles. Thus they would smash apart a bit of Dalton’s atomic theory in an effort to build a more complete view of the world around us. Related Module www.visiolearning.com

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THE MATTER

A term that traditionally refers to the substance of which all bodies consist. Matter in classical mechanics is closely identified with mass. Modern analyses distinguish two types of mass: inertial mass, by which matter retains its state of rest or uniform rectilinear motion in the absence of external forces; and gravitational mass, by which a body exerts forces of attraction on other bodies, and by which it reacts to those forces. Expressed in appropriate units, these two properties are numerically equal a purely experimental fact, unexplained by theory. Albert Einstein made the equality of inertial and gravitational mass a fundamental principle (principle of equivalence), as one of the two postulates of the theory of general relativity. //See also// Gravitation; Inertia; Mass; Relativity; Weight.









** The Properties of Matter ** The general properties of matter result from its relationship with mass and space. Because of its mass, all matter has inertia (the mass being the measure of its inertia) and weight, if it is in a gravitational field (see gravitation). Because it occupies space, all matter has volume and impenetrability, since two objects cannot occupy the same space simultaneously. The special properties of matter, on the other hand, depend on internal structure and thus differ from one form of matter, i.e., one substance, to another. Such properties include ductility, elasticity, hardness, malleability, porosity (ability to permit another substance to flow through it), and tenacity (resistance to being pulled apart). ** The States of Matter ** Matter is ordinarily observed in three different states, or phases (see states of matter), although scientists distinguish three additional states. Matter in the solid state has both a definite volume and a definite shape; matter in the liquid state has a definite volume but no definite shape, assuming the shape of whatever container it is placed in; matter in the gaseous state has neither a definite volume nor a definite shape and expands to fill any container. The properties of a plasma, or extremely hot, ionized gas, are sufficiently different from those of a gas at ordinary temperatures for scientists to consider them to be the fourth state of matter. So too are the properties of the Bose-Einstein and fermionic condensates, which exist only at temperatures approximating absolute zero (−273.15°C), and they are considered the fifth and sixth states of matter respectively. ** Early Theories of Matter ** In ancient times various theories were suggested about the nature of matter. Empedocles held that all matter is made up of four "elements"-earth, air, fire, and water. Leucippus and his pupil Democritus proposed an atomic basis of matter, believing that all matter is built up from tiny particles differing in size and shape. Anaxagoras, however, rejected any theory in which matter is viewed as composed of smaller constituents, whether atoms or elements, and held instead that matter is continuous throughout, being entirely of a single substance. ** Modern Theory of Matter ** The modern theory of matter dates from the work of John Dalton at the beginning of the 19th cent. The atom is considered the basic unit of any element, and atoms may combine chemically to form molecules, the molecule being the smallest unit of any substance that possesses the properties of that substance. An element in modern theory is any substance all of whose atoms are the same (i.e., have the same atomic number), while a compound is composed of different types of atoms together in molecules www.answers.com





Physical properties- The measurement of mass and other characteristics that can be seen without changing how that object looks are its physical properties. When you look at oranges, you know that they are oranges because of their color, shape, and smell. Mass, color, shape, volume, and density are some physical properties. The answers to the question about the present are physical properties. taken for:http://www.nyu.edu/pages/mathmol/textbook/whatismatter

Milk is a liquid. Milk is liquid matter. It has a size or volume. Volume means it takes up space. But milk doesn't have a definite shape. It takes the shape of its container. Liquids can flow, be poured, and spilled. Did you ever spill juice? Did you notice how the liquid goes everywhere and you have to hurry and wipe it up? The liquid is taking the shape of the floor and the floor is expansive limitless boundary (until it hits the wall). You can't spill a wooden block. You can drop it and it still has the same shape. What about jello and peanut butter? You can spread peanut butter on bread, but peanut butter does not flow. It is not a liquid at room temperature. You have to heat peanut butter up to make it a liquid. When you or your mom makes jello, it is first a liquid. You have to put it in the refrigerator so that it becomes a solid. These are yummy forms of matter with properties of a liquid and a solid.

 the matter Whereas "matter" originally (in aristotelian hylomorphism) referred not to an independent thing, but to a co-dependent "principle," the modern conception is that matter is a "substance" or entity unto itself, that is to say, it exists even apart from composing something else. Modern science identifies this "substance" through its physical properties; the most common current definition of //matter// is anything that has mass and occupies volume.However, this definition has to be revisedcitation citation //needed// in light of quantum mechanics, where the concept of "having mass", and "occupying space" are not as well-defined as in everyday life. A more general view is that bodies are made of //several// substances, and the properties of matter (including mass and volume) are determined not only by the substances themselves, but by how they interact. In other words, matter is made up of interacting "building blocks, the so-called //particulate theory of matter//. the plasma state In physics and chemistry, **plasma** is a gas in which a certain portion of the particles are ionized. The presence of a non-negligible number of charge carriers makes the plasma electricaly conductive so that it responds strongly to electromagnetic fields. Plasma, therefore, has properties quite unlike those of solids, liquids, or gases and is considered to be a distinct state of matter.
 * Matter** is a general term for the substance of which physical objects are made. The term does not have single correct scientific meaning; different people in different fields use the term in different sometimes contradictory ways.

A chemical property is any of a material's properties that becomes evident during a chemical reaction ; that is, any quality that can be established only by changing a substance's chemical identity. Simply speaking, chemical properties cannot be determined just by viewing or touching the substance; the substance's internal structure must be affected for its chemical properties to be investigated. Chemical properties can be contrasted with pysical properties, which can be discerned without changing the substance's structure. However, for many properties within the scope of physical chemistry, and other disciplines at the border of chemistry and physics, the distinction may be a matter of researcher's perspective. Material properties, both physical and chemical, can be viewed as supervenient; i.e., secondary to the underlying reality. Several layers of superveniency are possible.

A physical property is any measurable property the value of which describes a physical system's state at any given moment in time. For that reason the changes in the physical properties of a system can be used to describe its transformations (or evolutions between its momentary states). An object or substance that can be measured or perceived without changing its identity. Physical properties can be intesive or extensive. An intensive property does not depend on the size or amount of matter in the object, while an extensive property does. In addition to extensiveness, properties can also be either isotropic if their values do not depend on the direction of observation or anisotropic otherwise. Physical properties are referred to as observables. They are not modal properties. Often, it is difficult to determine whether a given property is physical or not. Color, for example, can be "seen"; however, what we perceive as color is really an interpretation of the reflective properties of a surface. In this sense, many ostensibly physical properties are termed as supervenient. A supervenient property is one which is actual (for dependence on the reflective properties of a surface is not simply imagined), but is secondary to some underlying reality. This is similar to the way in which objects are supervenient on atomic structure. A "cup" might have the physical properties of mass, shape, color, temperature, etc., but these properties are supervenient on the underlying atomic structure, which may in turn be supervenient on an underlying quantum structure.